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Who is Bud Feuer?

2007-08-30T11:27:00.000-07:00

Bud is a retired newspaper journalist and history writer with sixty years experience in the publishing field. He is a World War Two U.S. Navy Veteran and was involved in the earliest forms of infrared technology during his service. His post-war civilian career began with his job as a newspaper feature writer and has since blossomed into his accomplished resume of more than a dozen published books and several hundred magazine articles.

Bud’s Latest Projects

Bud is currently working on two World War One projects. He is interested in receiving letters, photos, and diary material from relatives of the brave soldiers who served in the Dardanelles Campaign of 1915 and with the U.S. 91^st Aero Squadron from 1918 to 1919. Also, for a project dealing with the 1920s, he would like to hear from anyone who has interesting stories about relatives who lived during that decade -- particularly newspapermen, politicians, and gangsters.

Sun Tzu and the Art of War

2007-08-19T16:40:00.000-07:00

If there is a bible for military leaders, Sun Tzu’s Art of War is it. Though written well over two thousand years ago, many of the principles in Sun Tzu’s military treatise still apply today. Many military leaders cite The Art Of War as a source of inspiration, and may have even influenced Napoleon.

Sun Tzu lived sometime between 544 BC and 496 BC. This was a turbulent time in China’s history: It was a nation torn apart by war. This was a perfect time for someone like Sun Tzu to learn a great deal about warfare.

Very little is known about Sun Tzu’s life. A biography was written about him around 300 years after he lived, which contains a story about how he convinced the King of Wu that he could train anyone to be a soldier. According to the tale, the king challenged him to train his concubines. Sun Tzu agreed, gave all the women spears, and made two of the king’s favorite concubines officers.

Though Sun Tzu patiently explained simple orders to the women, they kept disobeying him. Finally Sun Tzu said that the officers are to blame if troops continually disobey orders, and had the king’s two favorite concubines beheaded. From then on, the remaining women obeyed orders without question.

Part of The Art of War’s appeal is that it distills Sun Tzu’s knowledge in simple language that’s easy to understand. Many of its principles are relevant in other aspects of life, not just war.

Sun Tzu’s military treatise emphasizes subtlety, knowledge, and skill over strength, because strength alone does not win battles. In fact, The Art of War claims that the best victories are won without doing battle.

The Battle of Britain

2007-08-18T16:39:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Britain spanned from July 10th, 1940 to October 31st of that same year. It was the first major air force battle in history, and it was a battle that Germany might have easily won if not for some crucial mistakes.

This is not to say that Britain didn’t have plenty of advantages. Because the battle was fought over Britain itself, their aircraft could quickly land, refuel, and re-arm themselves for battle. German aircraft, on the other hand, had to travel a great distance. They could only fight for less than half an hour before being forced to return for refueling.

Another thing in Britain’s favor were radar bases, which gave them advance warning of air raids. Germany underestimated the importance of these radar bases, which would be part of the Luftwaffe’s downfall.

Germany’s air force, the Luftwaffe, had a greater number of aircraft as well as more experienced and better-trained fighter pilots. However, Britain’s Royal Air Force planes—the Spitfire and the Hurricane—were good aircraft that were more what we might call “user-friendly.” The Spitfire was faster than Luftwaffe’s Bf 109E, while the durable Hurricane could take a beating and still continue flying.

Germany’s military intelligence was not very good, and the Luftwaffe’s strategies were inconsistent. At one point they might have been able to defeat the RAF, but instead focused on attacking civilian areas instead. Because they switched targets, the RAF had time to recoup their losses.

The outcome of the battle was that Britain emerged triumphant. Germany lost mainly due to poor military intelligence and the great distance their aircraft had to fly, which meant that they couldn’t sustain attacks for long.

The Battle of Marathon

2007-08-17T15:25:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Marathon, which took place in 490 BC, was the last part of an attempt of King Darius I of the Persian Empire to conquer the rest of Greece to secure the weakest part of his western border. Almost all of what we know today of the battle came from Herodotus.

Darius sent Mardonius by land in 492 BC to Europe to strengthen Persia’s hold of Macedon and Thrace, regions that had been weakened during the Ionian Revolt. This succeeded but most of the force was lost in a storm off Mount Athos. The rest of the force returned to Asia.

In 490 BC Datis and Artaphernes were sent to subjugate the Cyclades islands in the central Aegean Sea as well as punish Athens and Eretria for their part in the Ionian Revolt. Eretria fell, at which point the Persian fleet arrived in Marathon Bay. Despite greater numbers, they were then defeated by a small force of Athenian and Plataean hoplites. The current usage of the word marathon was inspired by the long run the messenger took when he brought news of the victory to Athens.

It is believed that the fleet Darius sent to Marathon had 500 to 600 triremes. There was no estimate by Herodotus of the size of either army. Simonides, a poet, claimed the force to be 200,000, while another writer claimed 300,000. Modern historians believe it was actually much less than that. The Athenian army was believed to have had 7,000-10,000. The Battle of Marathon was significant because it was the first time the Greeks were able to defeat the Persians on land.

The Hundred Years War

2007-08-16T15:22:00.000-07:00

The Hundred Years War was a long conflict between England and France that lasted 116 years from 1337 to 1453. The conflict arose over claims by the English kings to the French throne. There were several brief periods with a couple of longer periods of peace during the 116 years. In the end, the English were expelled from France.

The war was a series of smaller conflicts divided into four phases, the Edwardian War from 1337-1360, the Caroline War from 1369-1389, and the Lancastrian War of 1415-1429, and the appearance of Joan of Arc (1429-1453) which marked the decline of English fortunes. The conflicts weren’t thought of as a single larger event at the time. Historians created the term “Hundred Years War” much later.

The war is significant historically for many reasons. First of all, even though it was a dynastic conflict, the war started ideas of both English and French nationality. It also introduced new weapons and strategies to battle, leading to the end of feudal armies dominated by heavy cavalry, which was thought to be the most powerful unit in an army.

This belief changed by the end of the war as heavy horse was replaced by the use of the longbow and fixed defensive positions of men-at-arms. These tactics allowed the English to be victorious at Crecy and Agincourt. The first standing armies in Western Europe appeared since the time of the Western Roman Empire. The war was significant because of these things along with the great length.

The Battle of Megiddo

2007-08-15T15:20:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Megiddo was fought between Egypt and a large Canaanite coalition in the 15th Century BC. The Egyptian forces were led by Pharaoh Thutmose III, while the Canaanite army was led by the King of Kadesh. It is significant because it was the first battle to have been recorded in reliable detail.

There are even some possible exact dates for the battle. The date most accepted by Egyptologists is May 9, 1457 BC. Others place the battle in 1482 BC or 1479 BC. The battle of Megiddo was won by the Egyptians and the Canaanite forces were routed. The Canaanites had fled to safety in the city of Megiddo, leading to the Siege of Megiddo.

Besides being the first battle with a detailed and reliable account, it was also the first recorded battle with use of the composite bow. The account of the battle also produced the first body count. All of the reports of the battle come from Egyptian sources, mainly in hieroglyphic writings on the Hall of Annals in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, Thebes, by the military scribe Tjaneni.

The victory reestablished Egyptian dominance in Palestine, with the Egyptian Empire hitting its largest size. The empire was expanded, and Thutmose III made all of the defeated kings send a son to the Egyptian Court. They received an Egyptian education and returned home being sympathetic to the Egyptians. Overall, unrest in the area of Palestine and Syria continued, with several more campaigns almost every year.

The Battle of Actium

2007-08-14T15:24:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Actium was a conflict during the Roman civil war between the forces supporting Octavian and those supporting Mark Antony. The battle took place on September 2, 31 BC on the Ionian Sea near Actium in Greece. Octavian’s fleet was commanded by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, while Antony’s was supported by Cleopatra VII’s fleet.

Octavian’s fleet was victorious which allowed him to consolidate power over Rome and lead to his adoption of the title of Princeps and acceptance of the title Augustus from the Senate. This was to preserve the appearance of a restored Republic, although historians consider it to be the beginning of the Roman Empire.

The battle took place outside the Gulf of Actium with Mark Antony leading 220 warships through the straights to the sea. He met Octavian’s fleet, who were arranged to block his exit from the straight, at that point. Antony’s fleet was made mostly of large quinqueremes, while Octavian’s fleet was mostly smaller Liburnian vessels armed with better trained crews. Despite the defeat, Antony was able to get on a smaller vessel with his flag and escaped. Except for a few ships that escaped with him, his entire fleet was captured or destroyed by Octavian’s fleet.

After the loss, Antony’s army mostly deserted, and he eventually committed suicide. Cleopatra then tried to negotiate a surrender with Octavian, but wasn’t able to get favorable terms and also committed suicide. The conclusion of the battle also marks the final surrender of Egypt as well as the end of the Hellenistic Age and Ptolemaic Kingdom.

The Battle of Brentwood

2007-08-13T14:26:00.000-07:00

On March 25, 1863, with the Western Campaign of the American Civil War in full swing, the South managed to gain a minor strategic advantage with very little bloodshed, using overwhelming manpower and clever planning to batter Union forces at the Battle of Brentwood.

Located in Williamson County, Tennessee, Brentwood was a station on the Nashville & Decatur Railroad, making it essential to the Union for supplies and troop movement. The South recognized the town's importance and scored a shockingly swift and decisive victory.

Union Lt. Col. Edward Bloodgood was defending Brentwood with a force of around 400 men. The Confederate forces, led by Brig. Gen. Nathan B. Forrest, were far superior in number, but they still proceeded with caution, using some devastating indirect attacks to soften the enemy. Before approaching Brentwood en masse, Forrest ordered Col. J.W. Starnes to lead his 2^nd Cavalry Brigade to cut the telegraph lines, tear up the railroad tracks, and cut off any means of escape.

Once Brentwood was isolated, Forrest demanded surrender. Bloodgood initially refused. Forrest proceeded to convince his adversary, surrounding the town with his immense army and positioning artillery to shell the Union troops. Faced with unbeatable odds, Bloodgood relented and surrendered.

Although Forrest and his men did severe damage to the surrounding Brentwood area, virtually crippling the town, only one soldier on each side was killed during the brief skirmish. Five Confederates were wounded, while 305 Union troops were either wounded or captured, marking one of the South's easiest triumphs.

The Battle of Chancellorsville

2007-08-12T14:33:00.000-07:00

When Union Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker boldly crossed the Rappahannock River on April 27, 1863, it appeared as though a decisive victory would follow. Hooker's Army of the Potomac was 133,000 strong, and its courageous march into Chancellorsville, Virgina, surprised the Confederate forces, which were vastly outnumbered and still regrouping from earlier battles. Yet despite having only 60,000 men at his disposal, General Robert E. Lee used ingenious planning and personal bravery to inspire his Confederate troops to a stunning victory.

The area around Chancellorsville is noted for its rugged terrain, thick brush, and dense wilderness. Instead of pressing the attack with his enormous manpower advantage, Hooker elected to benefit from the surroundings and hold a defensive posture, forcing Lee to either attack with his smaller army, which would eventually wear them down, or retreat with the Union forces at his back. Lee, never at a lack for valor, split his smaller army, sending General "Stonewall" Jackson and 28,000 troops to circle around and attack the Union's right flank, while Lee himself occupied Hooker's entire army with a force of roughly 12,000. Poor communication between regiments, disastrous battle decisions, and incompetence from several of his generals caused Hooker to suffer an embarrassing defeat, forcing the Union to retreat despite having a better than a two-to-one advantage in men.

Considered Lee's greatest victory of the Civil War, the Battle of Cancellorsville came at a staggering price. Before retreating, the Union suffered 17,000 casualties. While Lee lost fewer men, the total Union army dwarfed that of the Confederacy and could withstand the unimaginable carnage. The Confederate casualties at Chancellorsville amounted to roughly 25% of Lee's total infantry. He also endured the death of Jackson, his trusted ally and best general, to friendly fire. Lee's military daring may have won the battle, but Chancellorsville cost the Confederacy the war.

The Battle of Grand Gulf

2007-08-11T14:36:00.000-07:00

Abraham Lincoln considered Vicksburg, Mississippi, the key to the Civil War. Lincoln knew the importance of securing the Mississippi River, since it was the lifeline of commerce and supplies to the North. Until the Union Army controlled the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the South in two and severing a vital supply line, they'd never be able to proceed with their goal of toppling Richmond. And Vicksburg was the key strategic pin in seizing control of the Mississippi.

In the spring of 1863, the North kicked off the Vicksburg Campaign, with Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant and the Union Army of the Tennessee marching towards the pivotal Warren County objective. The Battle of Grand Gulf, fought on April 29, was one of the campaign's initial struggles.

Union Read Adm. David D. Porter commanded seven ironclad ships in an assault of the fortifications and artillery batteries around Grand Gulf, Mississippi. The plan called for Porter's group to destroy the guns and allow Gen. John A. McClernand's XIII Army Corps, which were being carried on accompanying transports and barges, to occupy the area. Porter's ships succeeded in dispatching the lower guns around Fort Wade, but Fort Coburn, positioned higher, remained out of reach and continued to hammer the Union ironclads.

Unable to defeat the Rebel artillery, Porter regrouped and attacked again, this time merely providing cover for the transports and barges to continue down river. Grant had marched his troops overland below the Gulf and met up with the river party at Bruinsburg. While the Confederacy won the Battle of Grand Gulf, it merely forced a slight change of plans for Grant's men, and the Union Army continued unimpeded towards their ultimate goal of Vicksburg.

The Battle of Chalk Bluff

2007-08-10T14:37:00.000-07:00

Fought in early May of 1863, the Battle of Chalk Bluff was significant in that both the Confederacy and the Union could claim partial victory.

Confederate Brig. Gen. John S. Marmaduke was leading 5000 cavalrymen into southeastern Missouri when he suffered a defeat at the Battle of Cape Girardeau. In order to regroup, Marmaduke and his men withdrew towards Helena, Arkansas, but Union forces, led by Brig. Gen. William Vandever, aggressively pursued Marmaduke through Missouri and chased him down at Chalk Bluff, Arkansas.

Marmaduke's only means of escape was crossing the St. Francis River, which had steep, chalky clay banks that proved problematic for horses. As his engineers hastily began constructing a makeshift bridge, Marmaduke deployed two lines of rearguards, the first at Four-Mile and the second a mile away at Gravel Hill, to slow the Union advance and protect his men while crossing.

When the powerful Union forces arrived, the Confederate rearguards were firmly entrenched and ready for battle. The fighting commenced on May 1 and carried into the next day, with the Union unable to vanquish the determined Rebels. Marmaduke's engineers succeeded in crafting the bridge, and the majority of his cavalrymen did, indeed, pass the river.

While the crossing was a tactical victory for the South, since Marmaduke accomplished his objective of clearing the St. Francis River, the Union troops thoroughly depleted Marmaduke's rearguards, inflicting 210 casualties. The losses weakened Marmaduke's army to such an extent, he was forced to end his advances and head back to camp, providing the North with the overall strategic win.

The Battle of Ardennes

2007-08-09T14:42:00.000-07:00

At the onset of World War I, the French intended to recapture the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which the Germans had claimed during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. The strategy was set forth in the French Plan XVII, calling for swift, offensive action from the French Army to drive the Germans out of Alsace-Lorraine and back to the Rhine. French commander-in-chief Joseph Joffre also wanted to simultaneously engage in the Ardennes forest, located primarily in Belgium, cutting down the Germans from their right flank as they progressed towards France. These initial clashes of the War, all fought along the eastern frontiers of France and southern Belgium, are collectively known as the Battle of the Frontiers.

The French forces dispatched to the Ardennes consisted of General Pierre Ruffey's Third Army and General Fernand de Langle de Cary's Fourth Army. The Germans entered the forest with Duke Albrecht leading the German Fourth Army and Crown Prince Wilhelm guiding the German Fifth Army.

As the German forces progressed through the forest, they dug trenches and fortified their position, preparing for the likely French assault. Meanwhile, the French relying on quickness and aggression to win the day, barreled headlong into the wooded region. Fog greatly hindered the advances of both armies. And on August 21, 1914, the two opposing forces literally stumbled into each other in the dense fog, beginning a bloody battle that would last three days.

The Germans, with their superior tactical positioning, were quick to regroup, mowing down the charging French forces with machine gun fire and heavy artillery. The French spirit soon waned, causing a hasty, disorderly retreat. As a result, the Germans seized control of important iron resources and continued their march towards France.

The Battle of Coronel

2007-08-08T14:50:00.000-07:00

When World War I started, the British Navy was riding a considerable undefeated streak, having not lost a naval battle since the Battle of Lake Champlain in 1812. That all changed on November 1, 1914.

The Royal Navy had been hunting Vice-Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee and the German Imperial Navy, known as the Kaiserliche Marine, during the opening months of the War. England feared Spee's squadron would inflict severe damage on trade routes and supply lines in the Pacific, but could never track him down until intercepting a radio communication in early October. Instead of pillaging the Pacific, Spee was actually heading for trading routes along the western coast of South America. At the time, British Rear-Admiral Sir Christopher Cradock was patrolling the region with his West Indies Squadron and prepared to intercept Spee near the Chilean town of Coronel.

Cradock had at his command four Royal Navy ships, including two armored cruisers, a light cruiser, and a converted liner. They were all aging vessels. Meanwhile, Spee was steaming towards him with five modern, fully-armed warships. Cradock knew he was outnumbered and outgunned, but reinforcements were too far away. Instead of retreating, Cradock bravely, if foolishly, attacked Spee's fleet.

Spee deftly guided his faster ships beyond Cradock's firing range and then unleashed his own barrage of artillery. Cradock's own ship, the Good Hope, was the first to fall, sinking with all hands on deck. The other armored cruiser, the HMS Monmouth, was the next to succumb, joined the Good Hope underwater. There were no survivors from either ship. A total of 1,654 men were lost that day. The surviving two British vessels, the Glasgow and Otranto, managed to escape, but the Battle of Coronel remains one of the worst defeats in English naval history.

The Battle of the Falkland Islands

2007-08-07T14:51:00.000-07:00

After the humiliating defeat suffered at the Battle of Coronel, in which the British Royal Navy lost two cruisers and 1,654 men to Vice-Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee and the German Imperial Navy, all England was hungry for revenge. The British unleashed the dogs of war, sending a powerful fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Sturdee to hunt down and destroy Spee's squadron. Surprisingly, Spee found them, signing his own death notice.

Demonstrating their desire for brutal vengeance, the British deployed the Invincible and the Inflexible, two fearsome, modern battle cruisers armed with eight gigantic 12-inch guns apiece and capable of reaching speeds of 25 knots. They meant business. But before pursuing Spee, they stopped at Stanley in the Falkland Islands, along with three armored cruisers and two light cruisers, to re-coal.

Unaware of the British presence, Spee and his squadron, consisting of two armored cruisers, three light cruisers, and three transports, approached the Falklands, intending to raid the islands.

On December 8, 1914, two of Spee's cruisers, the Gneisenau and Nürnberg, ventured near Port Stanley as the British squadron re-coaled. But the German ships halted their advance upon taking fire from an unknown source. The shells were coming from the Canopus, a grounded pre-dreadnought battleship beached to protect Port Stanley. Unable to locate the source of the artillery, the German vessels reversed course. Had they pressed ahead, they could have battered the vulnerable British ships before they even got out of port. It was a deadly mistake.

The British quickly finished re-coaling and, led by the mighty Invincible and Inflexible, devoured Spee's squadron, sinking six of its eight ships and inflicting 1,871 casualties, included in which were Spee and his two sons. A little over a month after the Battle of Coronel, Britain had its revenge.

The Battle of Aachen

2007-08-06T14:53:00.000-07:00

In October of 1944, Allied forces invaded Aachen, Germany, marking World War II's first invasion of a major German city. Normally home to some 160,000 citizens, the city's population was down to around 20,000 by the time of the attack, with the rest having been evacuated under the orders of German commander Gerhard von Schwerin, who wanted to protect them from the impending battle. Schwerin even considered surrendering to preserve the historic city's artifacts, but Adolf Hitler saw this as a sign of weakness and had Schwerin removed from power.

In Schwerin's place, Hitler defended the city with 5,000 Volkssturm, which was the German national militia formed in the final months of the War. The Volkssturm was comprised of all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60. Their military training was simplistically basic and their weaponry cheap and primitive. It was Hitler's last desperate attempt to prolong the inevitable. Hitler was determined to do whatever he could to try and defend Aachen. Charlemagne's coronation took place in Aachen, making it the home of the Holy Roman Empire and what Hitler considered "The First Reich." He knew if Aachen fell, so would the Third Reich.

Including the Volksstrum, Germany had roughly 12,000 soldiers in Aachen. U.S. commanders planned to lay siege to the city, surrounding it and cutting off all supplies until it surrendered. But the German resistance was fierce, forcing the U.S. to take the city directly through deadly urban warfare. All told, 2,000 American soldiers were killed and another 3,000 wounded. The Germans lost 5,000 men with another 5,600 captured. Aachen fell. And, not longer after, so did the Third Reich.

The Trebuchet

2007-08-05T14:51:00.000-07:00

The most powerful and perhaps most feared medieval siege engine was the trebuchet. The weapon was used to smash and destroy walls or to throw projectiles such as stone over them. There are two types of trebuchets, the counterweight and traction trebuchet. The traction trebuchet was an earlier weapon and the word is usually associated with the counterweight version.

Made from wood, the trebuchet was invented in China around the 4th century B.C. and made its way to Europe by the 6th century A.D. The trebuchet was used in both the Christian and Muslim world around the Mediterranean in the twelfth century. It was capable of throwing up to three hundred pound projectiles at fortifications such as castles. Many types of projectiles were thrown, including stone and even diseased corpses flung over walls- an early form of biological warfare. The trebuchet was more powerful and accurate than other medieval catapults. The fearsome weapon was used until the 16th century when the use of gunpowder started taking hold.

The trebuchet launched by having a counterweight acting on a lever arm. The fulcrum of the lever is supported by a high frame. The counterweight is suspended from the short arm of the lever, with the sling being attached to the long arm of the lever. One end of the sling is captive, while the other is hooked to the long arm so that it will release when the arm and sling reach the best hurling angles. The device is energized when the long arm is lowered and raised by the weighted short arm. It is then locked into the charged state by a cocked trigger mechanism.

The Catapult

2007-08-04T14:52:00.000-07:00

The catapult is probably the best known of medieval siege engines. Any siege engine that uses an arm to hurl a projectile is considered to be a catapult. Interestingly, the term catapult was originally used for a dart throwing device, while the term ballista referred to a projectile thrower. The two terms switched meanings around the 4th century A.D.

When catapults were used at siege they were usually put together on site. Catapults were made out of wood and an army would carry a few pieces with them and then fashion the rest out of nearby wood. The earliest use of catapults was in China, with a levered catapult and eight foot high siege crossbow around the 4th century B.C. The first European catapult was the Greek Gastraphetes. This was a very large crossbow that had to be braced against the abdomen instead of held in the hand. The next step in European catapults was an even larger crossbow mounted on a stand.

After this torsional catapults were developed that had two torsion powered arms, and later with one torsion powered arm. The last type of catapult used, the one we think of most of today, was the trebuchet. The trebuchet used gravity or traction instead of tension or torsion to propel the throwing arm. It used a falling counterweight to pull down the bottom end of the arm torhowing the projectile from a sling attached to a rope at the top end of the arm. The counterweight would need to be much heavier than the projectile.

The Ballista

2007-08-03T14:53:00.000-07:00

That ballista was a powerful ancient siege weapon. It was basically a massive crossbow that used several loops to power it using torsion. The ballista was first seen in Ancient Greece, where it was developed from two weapons known as oxybeles and gastaphetes. The gastraphetes, also known as the belly-bow, was a large hand held crossbow that was large enough that it needed to be supported in the belly instead of the hand.

The oxybeles was even larger and was mounted on a tripod. Once the invention of the torsion spring bundle came about, ballistas were created. This new device had a faster relaxation time and was able to shoot lighter projectiles over a longer distance. The first ballista is believed to have been built around 400 B.C.

The Romans adopted use of the ballista after absorbing the Ancient Greek city-states in 146 B.C. The Romans continued to further develop it as time went by. Julius Caesar used ballistas during his conquest of Gaul and on both of his British campaigns. The ballista proved to be an effective siege weapon during the days of conquest in the Roman Empire. It continued to improve in many ways, such as replacing most part made of wood with metal.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the use of the ballista started to fade, although it was still used. First it was replaced by the simpler and cheaper onager. Later it was phased out after the trebuchet and mangonel became popular in siege warfare.

The Halberd

2007-08-02T14:54:00.000-07:00

The halberd is a two handed pole-like weapon that became popular during the 14th century. The word is believed to have come from the German words Halm and Barte. Halberds are made of an axe blade topped with a spike that is mounted on a long shaft. It will have a hook on the back side of the axe blade.

The weapon became popular because it was cheap to produce and very versatile. Eventually production of the halberd was refined to a degree where its point was developed more to allow it to better deal with spears and pikes. The hook opposite the axe head could be used to pull horsemen to the ground.

The halberd was the main weapon of the early Swiss armies in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Swiss later added the pike to better repel knightly attacks and get through enemy infrantry formations. They used the halberd and hand-and-a-half sword for closer combat. The German Landsknechts also used the halberd along with the pike. They also used the Katzbalger short sword.

The halberd remained a useful weapon in battle for as long as pikemen fought against other pikemen. It was used for “push of pike,” but when their position became more defensive the percentage of halberdiers in the pike units began to decrease. By the end of the 16th century the halberd had pretty much disappeared from use as a mainstream weapon. Today the halberd continues to be used as a ceremonial weapon of the Swiss Guard in the Vatican.

The Mace

2007-08-01T14:56:00.000-07:00

The mace is a weapon that is a more developed form of a club. It has a strong, wooden and metal reinforced or all-metal shaft, with a head made of stone or metal. The mace was first developed around 12,000 B.C. and was one of the most important weapons in ancient times. The first maces were made of wood and studded with flint or obsidian, while some had stone heads. When copper and bronze were discovered, they were used to make maces.

In the Middle Ages, maces became popular because metal armor and chain mail protected well against edged weapons and arrows. Maces were effective, as were war hammers, at inflicting damage on well armored knights. The force of a blow from a mace was able to cause damage without actually piercing the armor. The flanged mace was a good example of this. It had flanges, or protruding edges of metal that were able to dent or penetrate almost any armor. The flanged mace became popular in Europe around the 12th century, although they were used in the Muslim world even earlier than that.

It is also believed that the clergy used maces in the Middle Ages in order to fight without shedding blood. The evidence for this derives from the depiction of Bishop Odo of Bayeux wilding a mace at the Battle of Hastings in the Bayeux Tapestry.

Maces are no longer used for combat, but they are used by a number of government bodies, universities, and other institutions as ceremonial maces. They are used in rituals and other processions.

The Battle of Tours

2007-07-31T14:57:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Tours, also known as the Battle of Poitiers, took place on October 10, 732 as part of the Muslim Conquests. The battle was fought near the city of Tours, which was close to the border between the Frankish realm and Aquitane. Frankish and Burgundian forces under Austrasian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel were lead against an army of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate army was led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, Governeor-General of al-Andalus.

The battle was won by the Franks and Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi was killed. Martel was able to extend his authority in the south as a result of the battle. Many details of the battle, such as the exact location and number of combatants, are indeterminable from the surviving accounts.

Later chroniclers labeled Charles Martel as the champion of Christianity. Historians before the 20th century described the battle as being decisive in the struggle against Islam. Modern historians are not as sure to whether the victory was as important in saving Christianity and stopping the conquest by Islam of Europe. But the battle did help lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire and Frankish domination of Europe over the next century.

Many historians still agree that the battle was important for future European history. They are of the opinion that if Martel had been defeated during the battle, the entire Western world could be Muslim today. Some historians, however, consider it to have been a fairly minor raid in the overall scheme of things.

The Fall of Constantinople

2007-07-30T14:58:00.000-07:00

The Fall of Constantinople marked the end of the end of the old Byzantine Empire. It was a battle that ended in the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire on May 29, 1453. By this time the empire had already started to break up into several Greek monarchies. It also led to the Ottoman Empire expanding into the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The Fall of Constantinople is also noted by many historians as marking the end of the Middle Ages.

The Byzantine Empire lasted over 1,000 years and Constantinople, its capital, had been besieged many times. One time, in 1204, it was taken. This led to the empire being split into a number of states, who fought over the Byzantine crown. The empire was weakened from that point until it was finally conquered for good by the Ottomans.

Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire planned the attack. His army camped outside the city on April 2, 1453. He sat there while his large pieces of artillery were transported. Once his cannons were in place they were able to break down parts of the wall, but the Byzantines were able to repair it before it could be breached.

In the Golden Horn, his fleet was unable to enter because of the boom that was laid across it by the Byzantines. The fleet stood by to keep any outside ships from entering the area. The attack that took the city began on May 29, and they were eventually able to storm the city. As the first enemy flags showed up on the walls, Constantine XI led the last defense of the city, and died in the streets with his soldiers.

Greek Fire

2007-07-29T14:59:00.000-07:00

Greek fire was one of the most feared weapons in ancient times. It was a burning liquid used by the Byzantine Greeks and was used in naval battles. It was especially effective because it would keep burning even on water. Also known as Byzantine fire, it was responsible for many Byzantine military victories and helped the empire survive as long as it did. The formula is a secret to this day, although there are some theories.

According to Theophanes, Greek fire was invented in 670 in Constantinople by Kallikinos, an architech from Heliopolis in the Byzantine Iudaea Province. Historians believe that it was probably invented by the chemists in Constantinople. Greek fire was so effective because it couldn’t be put out by pouring water on it. The water actually caused the fire to intensify and spread.

When it was first invented, Greek fire was used by firing a burning cloth-wrapped ball with a catapult onto enemy forces. With technological advances later on, there was a pump mechanism developed to discharge a stream of the fluid at close ranges which devastated wooden ships in naval battles.

Even though the composition of Greek fire is unknown, its effectiveness was obvious. It wasn’t effective under all circumstances, however. It was less effective in open seas as opposed to narrow sea passages. It’s not known for sure whether the operator ignited the mixture with a flame as it came out of a syringe, or if it ignited spontaneously when it contacted water or air. Knowing this could help determine which ingredients were more likely to have been used in its manufacture.

The Battle of Bosworth Field

2007-07-28T15:00:00.000-07:00

The Battle of Bosworth Field was one of the more important battles during the Wars of the Roses in England. It was fought between King Richard III of York and Henry Tudor of the Lancastrian contender for the crown on August 22, 1485. The battle ended in Richard’s death and the establishment of the Tudor dynasty. It is considered to have served as the conclusion to the Wars of the Roses.

The battle, which lasted only about two hours, began well for King Richard, but Sir William Stanley entered the battle on Henry’s side with Lord Stanley staying out of the conflict. Richard reached Ambion Hill in good position, and when Henry arrived his forces used cannon and arrows to force Richard’s forces down from the hilltop. Richard called for the Earl of Northumberland to join the fray with fresh forces, but he refused. Speculation is that it was a calculated move, and he was confirmed in all his titles and lands after the battle by the new King Henry.

Richard’s commander, John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, was killed, and with the Northumberland and Stanley armies staying out, it lead to his defeat. At that point Henry lead his forces to Lord Stanley, and seeing that Richard charged Henry’s troops. Once Richard was in sight of Henry, Sir William Stanley’s army came to the Tudor’s rescue, and Richard’s forces were overwhelmed. Richard was the last of the Plantagenet kings. Henry Tudor was crowned as King Henry VII to begin the 118 year reign of the Tudor dynasty in England.

The Wars of the Roses

2007-07-27T15:01:00.000-07:00

The Wars of the Roses, which lasted from 1455-1487, were a series of civil wars fought over the thrown of England. The two sides vying for the throne were the Houses of Lancaster and York. Both were branches of the Plantagenet royal house which traced their descent to King Edward III.

The term Wars of the Roses was given to the conflicts after the fact. It started to be used in the nineteenth century after Anne of Geierstein was published by Sir Walter Scott. The name came from the badges associated with both royal houses, the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York.

The roses weren’t used that often as symbols during the wars, as most participants wore badges of their immediate feudal lords. The unofficial system of livery and maintenance actually helped cause the wars. The followers would be protected by powerful nobles if they would sport their colors and badges. This led to a breakdown of royal authority.

The Wars of the Roses were mainly fought by the landed aristocracy and armies of feudal retainers. Each house was supported by dynastic marriages with the nobility, feudal titles, and tenures. It could be hard to follow the shifts of power and allegiance with this process. The Wars of the Roses ended with Henry Tudor being crowned king after the defeat of King Richard III’s forces at the Battle of Bosworth Field. The crowning of King Henry VII began the 118 year reign of the Tudor dynasty.