FYS Science News

Violin Chemicals Making a Smoother Sound

2006-11-29T14:02:00.000-08:00

On November 29, 2006, in the NewScientist.com article “Why do Stradivari's violins sound sublime?” (found at http://www.newscientisttech.com/article.ns?id=dn10686), Paul Marks discusses a researchers dedication to discovering the chemical composition in the wood of 17th-century violins.

Seventeenth-century Italian violin makers, such as Antonia Stradivari, were known to produce exquisite violins that produced a very distinct honeyed sound. Recently, researcher Joseph Nagyvary of Texas A&M University has found that the chemicals used to treat the wood of Stradivari’s violins may have contributed to their unique tonal qualities. Nagyvary performed infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to examine wood shavings of the antique violins’ backboard while they were undergoing reparations. The chemical composition of the wood seems to have resulted from local preservatives the instrument-makers used from Lombardy, Italy. However, analysis of the trees in Lombardy reveals that the chemical composition of the wood in the region is different today. Traces of copper, iron, and chromium salts, probably used as wood preservatives, seem to have an effect on the acoustics of the violins, though Nagyvary believes this was not Stradivari’s intent.

Nagyvary first discovered the chemical effects on instrumental tones in 1998, when he first discovered a violin backboard could produce sounds similar to a Stradivari violin by being soaked in salt water and grape juice. Since then, he has devoted his work to dissections of Stradivari violins and their possible chemical compositions. Yet, Nagyvary’s passion for sound stemmed from his experience losing his voice, then regaining it with the aid of a plastic implant. As he still has yet to determine the exact types of salts used in the seventeenth-century violins, it seems he hopes to find the optimum formula of chemicals that could produce an optimum sound. His previous life experiences, such as his vocal surgery and his simple experiment with grape juice and salt water, have played defining roles in what direction his research takes him. Nagyvary is also a researcher who blends art and science. His love of music, though at first glance may not relate with his profession as a biochemist, still affects all aspects of his life. As a scientist, Nagyvary does not hesitate to let his life and identity influence his scientific work.

Many have criticized the pragmatics of studying the chemical composition of violin wood. For instance, Jon Whiteley, curator of music at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, argues that it is the shape of the violin that determines its sound qualities, and that chemical preservatives have very little to do with producing tone. Personally, I can see the interest and the intrigue generated by Nagyvary and his work. By discovering what kind of chemical structures affect sound, more specific and unique violins can be created to give more control in crafting various artistic styles. However, I do understand that the chemical breakdown of a violin’s backboard is not the only factor that determines sound. A joint study of instrument shape as well as chemical analysis should be used to fine-tune instruments into their best performances.

Additional Sources:

Nagyvary, Joseph. "Joseph Nagyvary's Home Page." Texas A&M University. 29 Nov. 2006 .

Uncontroversial Stem Cell Research?

2006-11-20T16:56:00.000-08:00

The Associated Press reported in the November 18, 2006 New York Times online article “Stem Cell Experiment Yields Heart Valves” (found at http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/18/health/18stem.html?_r=1&ref=science&oref=slogin) that researchers have found a way to grow replacement heart valves from amniotic stem cells.

Using stem cells from the amniotic fluid surrounding a growing baby, Swiss scientists from the University of Zurich have successfully isolated fetal stem cells and cultured heart valves that could potentially be used to fix babies born with heart defects. Led by Dr. Simon Hoerstrup, the scientific team separated stem cells from amniotic fluid removed during a prenatal test. Heart valve tissue was grown from the cells in the laboratory in specialized molds. Japanese scientists have completed similar experiments where they created rabbit heart valves from the rabbit’s own tissues. For babies, using valves made from their own tissue may allow the valves to grow with them, a feature not belonging to donor heart valves or artificial valves. The benefits of using stem cells from amniotic fluid are numerous. Amniotic fluid has high concentrations of stem cells and the stem cells can be kept frozen, making them ideal for creating replacement tissues for older patients as well as young patients.

The scientists working on this type of stem cell research are entering new territory. Stem cells have proven to be controversial in the past, yet obtaining amniotic stem cells does not require the demolition of embryos. Hoerstrup recognized the “ethical advantage” as a great plus of his team’s work. Though these scientists do not have to brave the treacherous waters of moral controversy that normally surround stem cells, they do have unmapped seas through which to navigate. The use of the laboratory-grown heart valves have only been minimally tested in animals, not humans. Hoerstrup and the other Swiss researchers face years of trial experiments involving sheep before any work can be done on humans. Such scientists require great long-term determination and perseverance. However, it seems that optimism is paramount to the success of these scientists. Hoerstrup states, “I’m pretty sure the ball will continue to be advanced down the field. We’ll get there one way or the other.”

I have never heard of stem cells that do not harm embryos. If progress can be made with amniotic stem cells as much as progress has been made with embryonic stem cells, many changes would take place in scientific funding, within the political arena, and among groups worried about the moral and ethical implications of stem cell research. The removal of the element of controversy will allow great strides to be made in growing tissues and replacement parts from amniotic stem cells without the hassle of red tape and intense public debate. I think the ultimate success of growing replacement heart valves from stem cells depends on how well the science community explains the process to the public, so that unneeded worry and controversy can be avoided.

“Ma’am, a ‘sonic hedgehog’ is causing your facial defects.”

2006-11-15T13:31:00.000-08:00

In the November 12, 2006 New York Times article “‘Sonic Hedgehog’ Sounded Funny, at First” (found at http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/12/weekinreview/12schwartz.html?_r=1&ref=science&oref=slogin), John Schwartz examines the repercussions of creative titles researchers give to newly discovered genes.

The numerous types of genes in existence provide scientists with the gargantuan task of remembering endless code titles and numbers that identity various genes. Such indistinct tags given to genes can make it extremely hard and boring for researchers continually refer to genes. In order to make names memorable and different, researchers began giving creative and unusual names to the genes they discovered, mostly in flies and other animals. Resulting are genes named “faint sausage,” “smurf,” “sonic hedgehog,” “lunatic fringe,” “death executioner Bcl-2,” and “mothers against decapentaplegia.” However, when applied to human health, the luster of the weird names dissipates. When medical professionals need to explain to patients what gene may be causing brain damage, defects, and other genetic diseases, the funny names for the fatal genes are not funny any longer. Though possible that a doctor with a sense of humor, who can comfortably translate odd names to their ailing patients, can avoid tenseness, many agree that the best route is to simply rename the genes.

Science does not provide an exciting atmosphere one-hundred percent of the time. When boredom sets in, scientists seem to reach into their underutilized creative sides, often stifled by the nature of their work, to alleviate the monotony of their tasks. However, it seems that research scientists and medical scientist view the same issue in different lights. While researchers use odd names to tell genes apart, doctors see the odd names as a hindrance to science and how it can be applied to others. Dr. Susan Povey, a biology professor at the University College London, leads the genome nomenclature committee of the Human Genome project, working to rename the more offensive gene names that have surfaced. Interestingly enough, Povey states that the committee as encountered dissention from researchers extremely fond of the creative names they have bestowed upon their discoveries. She states, “They don’t like somebody who doesn’t know much about it telling them what to call it.”

I can definitely see the benefit of giving unique names to genes. They allow scientists to distinguish similar-looking masses, making genes easier to learn, easier to remember, and easier to explain to other researchers. However, it is comforting that some sort of controls is being set by other scientists, who recognize the possible harmful potential such names have. Though, I find it worrisome that some scientists are so ardent about their weird names that they will proudly not allow others to change them. Such pride cannot be beneficial in keeping scientific research and research ethics pure and rational. While I don’t think the inventive naming of genes should be abolished completely, I do believe mediate naming is essential. Setting guidelines, calling already objectionable titles by their initials, and regulating how abnormal names can help reduce potential offense patients may take.

A Better Basketball?

2006-11-06T19:02:00.000-08:00

In the November 4, 2006 Science News Online article “Dribble Quibble: Experiments find that new basketball gets slick” (found at: http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20061104/fob4.asp ), Peter Weiss reported that the new standardized plastic basketballs used by the NBA do not exceed the former leather basketballs used.

This summer, the National Basketball Association, or NBA, introduced a newly designed plastic basketball from the sporting goods brand Spalding. For the past 35 years, Spalding provided the NBA with the former standard leather-covered basketball. Since the introduction of the new basketball, many NBA players have complained of the poorer performance level from the balls. Physicists at the University of Texas at Arlington, led by James L. Horwitz, performed various tests on the new plastic basketballs and old leather basketballs to compare the two materials. Horwitz and his colleagues slid the basketballs on silicon sheets, which mimic the friction coefficient of a human hand. Dry plastic basketballs traveled much less than the dry leather basketballs, yet when the balls were made damp to imitate sweat, the friction coefficient of the leather balls increased and the coefficient of the plastic balls were cut in half. Thus, the new plastic basketballs become increasingly slick, less elastic, and more uncontrollable.

Clarification of results may drive researchers in the search for truth. Spalding’s own research during the development of the new plastic basketballs found that the friction coefficient of the new balls outranked that of the leather balls. Conflict arose when NBA players started to complain of the new basketballs. Mark Cuban, owner of the NBA’s Dallas Mavericks, covered the costs for the University of Texas in order for Horwitz and other physicists to conduct their research. Thus, motivations of the scientists may not stem purely from curiosity, but from necessity and responsibility. Though initial results have already been submitted to Cuban and the NBA, Horwitz and his team continues to conduct research on the basketballs, including air tunnel tests, though Cuban or the NBA plan to change the balls. Here, more unabated curiosity of the scientists seems to play a part, as the researchers are no longer getting compensated for their studies.

Though the debate over which type of basketball is better may not apply widely to the general public, it does provide a unique concern that may indirectly affect the sports world and fans of the NBA. The evidence against plastic balls now exists, and though nothing is being done to change the standards of basketballs on the professional level, any future complaints surrounding the gear of the game may take longer to process. In terms of scientists, it is interesting that tests performed on the same ball ended with different outcomes, as shown by the mixed results from Spalding and the University of Texas. Though such research may not be pragmatic to humankind overall, at least private corporations are funding this type of research, not the university itself. The continued work of Horwitz should reveal interesting ideas about basketballs, but its usefulness may be in question.

Additional Sources:

"The Physics of Basketballs." UT Arlington. University of Texas, Arlington. 6 Nov. 2006 http://www.uta.edu/uta/gateway-features/horwitz-de.

Yup, Face Transplants

2006-10-30T08:25:00.000-08:00

BBC News announced on October 25, 2006 in the online article “UK gets face transplant go-ahead” (found at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6083392.stm ) that surgeons in London have been granted permission to select patients for performing the world’s first full face transplant surgery.

The ethics committee of London’s Royal Free Hospital gave Peter Butler and his team of surgeons consent to perform a full face transplant surgery. Only a partial face transplant has been successfully performed. Butler and his colleagues now start the process of finding candidates for the full face transplant operation, who must be able to handle the psychological impacts that the surgery will have on them. The transplant operation consists of two major steps. In the first step, surgeons remove from a donor the skin, muscle, and fat of the face area in addition to eight blood vessels, four arteries and four veins. Secondly, the bloods vessels, arteries, veins, and nerves are connected to the recipient over the course of several hours. Once surgery is completed, the patient must take immunosuppressant drugs so that they will not reject the foreign tissue that is now their face. Due to the recipient’s own unique bone structure, they should appear different than the donor.

The research and study done in face transplants motivates scientists for years. Butler has not only been studying the surgery itself, but has also familiarized himself with how the body can reject tissue, mental issues, and the impact of identity. Butler wants to give a sense of hope and normality to patients still unsatisfied after many, many reconstructive surgeries. Because of the controversial nature of face transplants, which touch on the loss and augmentation of one’s identity, surgeons such as Butler are extremely motivated to introduce new medicine, yet remain cautious due to the intense risks that they can havoc on an unstable patient. Scientists also play a large role in deciding if such a procedure lines up with morality. Members of the hospital’s ethics committee must seriously decide whether to progress or halt a decade of research by people such as Butler. In addition to deciding if the immunosuppressant drugs are safe, the committee bears the task of being able to see how science and philosophy intertwine. This physical surgery has great mental effects which relate to identity, how people recognized each other, and how people recognize themselves.

The issue of identity is a prevalent one. I believe full face transplants have great potential to give those suffering from disfigured or injured faces a chance to live a normal life without being shunned by society. However, I fear the line where face transplants can be used for the wrong reasons. For instance, the surgery could one day go as far as to aid a fleeing criminal, play a role in identity theft, and reshape the entire spectrum of plastic surgery, maybe even customizing a face that you wish to have. I find it comforting that groups, such as the Royal Free Hospital’s ethics committee, take the time to consider the social effects of atypical procedures. Scientists should continue to monitor their fellow researchers and doctors so that scientific progress can be used for the greatest benefit to the public, and not be wasted on those who do not truly appreciate it, which could bring harsh affects to the way we live.

“A New Way to Be Human”

2006-10-26T07:22:00.000-07:00

James van der Pool explores in the BBC News online article “Introducing humans version 2.0” (found at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6076860.stm ), posted on October 24, 2006, the ramifications of computers with equal or greater intelligence than a human.

Neuroscientists have been making headway in creating computers to perform functions of the human brain. Using silicon implants on the brain connected to a computer, external mechanisms can be controlled by the simple act of thought. Researchers started with tests on animals. John Chapin of the State University of New York placed electrodes on a rat’s brain so that he could use radio signals to control the rat’s whiskers. Duke University’s Miguel Nicolelis has connected the brains of monkeys to computers so that the monkeys can control robotic arms just by thinking about it. Human brains have also been tested. Connecting the brain of a mute paralyzed man to a computer, scientists are slowly training the computer to read the man’s brain activity, translating his thought of speech into computer-generated sounds. In another study, another paralyzed man was outfitted with a brain implant that allowed him to actually move objects using his thoughts.

The neuroscientists that are on the forefront of these “artificial intellects” are branching into a field of great ethical debate. Many experts predict that as computer power continues to grow, a computer may soon reach the intelligence level of human beings. Chapin wants his “remote control rat” to help him understand how each part of the brain works and what each part operates. Other than attempting to better understand how the brain functions, other scientists feel a nobler and more social purpose arises from artificial intellects. Nicolelis believes that, with this technology, “the brain is finally freed from the body and it can act upon the world directly.” Downloading our thoughts to computer, improving existing intelligence, and mind-control with silicon implants gives scientists the opportunity to forcibly control other humans and the ability to create a new species, in essence. In creating machines that hold the ability to exceed our own intelligence, scientists must be ready to deal with issues such as man’s immortality, playing God, and a world where humans could be repressed by beings greater than themselves.

Hugo de Garis, who has contributed to developing machines who can gradually improve their intelligence, fears that the advent of artificial intellects would create a world reminiscent to George Orwell’s “1984.” I cannot help but think the same. Scientists must be aware of the danger of letting this technology get out of hand or get into the wrong pair of hands. While, computer-enhanced intelligence can benefit those who need assistance, such as paralytic victims, allowing computer intellect to supersede our own may have disastrous results. Such machines will then be out of our control and exist outside of our understanding. Becoming the inferior beings of Earth may be a shock to the human race’s system that we may not take. Man may me immortal, but such a trait will come at a great price of oppression.

Striding Towards “Smellovision”?

2006-10-14T19:53:00.000-07:00

On October 13, 2006, BBC News investigates in the online article “Creating a stink in the name of science” (found at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6043428.stm ) the work of researchers to create synthetic smells.

Professor Takamichi Nakamoto at the Tokyo Institute of Technology has created and developed various machines and devices to recognize and reproduce scents. One “odor recorder” uses a sensor to pick up a given smell and then mixes various chemicals in order to reproduce the smell. For example, a lemon can be placed to the electronic smell receptor and the lemon scent is recorded, analyzed, and a chemical combination is created to try to match the lemon scent that was picked up. Similar to the most basic functions of a rudimentary brain, the machine’s “neural network” is the electronic control system that analyses scent. The device, however, usually doesn’t match the smell right on the first try. It must compare its produced scent with the recorded scent to gradually and slowly make adjustments so a more distinguished smell is ultimately made. The power of the device is limited as there are an infinite number of scents and only so many chemicals that Nakamoto and his team can load into the machine at a time.

Nakamoto’s goal is to be able to one day reproduce all smells. Already, their technology has been used in Japanese virtual games and in some Japanese cinemas, where films such as The New World and Spirited Away has screened certain scenes with correlating scents. Though, “smellovision” for television has been researched in the past, Nakamoto believes that scent is a great benefit today for enhancing learning. He asserts that a person can retain information better when that information is presented to them in conjunction with a smell. Though Nakamoto sees the most probable uses for his work in the fragrance and entertainment industries, it appears he ultimately wants synthetic smell reproduction to improve the way people are educated and perceive worlds that they may not have direct access to.

Initially, many tend to think of the idea of “smellovision” or of scented entertainment as an absurdity with no practical purpose. However, with intense and specified brainstorming and searching, there may be uses for this kind of research. For instance, the odor recorder could be used to improve learning programs and memory enhancement, or for streamlining businesses in the perfume industry. I think that the biggest obstacle will be getting those funding the development of this technology to overlook the obvious, superficial uses that marketers would be tempted to push on consumers, and use Nakamoto’s research for more profound and meaningful purposes.

Cancer Treatments Applying to Macular Degeneration

2006-10-07T18:20:00.000-07:00

Science News Online reported on October 7, 2006 in the article “Improving the View: Treatment reverses macular degeneration” (found at: http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20061007/fob1.asp ) that a modified cancer treatment may help those who may become blind due to the eye disease macular degeneration.

The wet form of macular degeneration, a common eye disease in elderly people, causes optical blood vessels grow at an above average rate causing extraneous fluid to be pushed into the macula, which is part of the eye that allows us to see small details and distinct features. This overgrowth of blood vessels can escalate to the point of causing vision loss. Ranibizumab, a drug used to slow down the growth of blood vessels in cancer tumors by stopping a growth-inducing protein, has recently been tested to prevent the same problem of blood vessel overgrowth in suffers of macular degeneration. In a test spanning a couple of years, the vision of macular degeneration patients who given treatments of ranibizumab improved by at least one line on an eye chart. Though some patients who received ranibizumab did not have any significant improvements in their eyesight, patients whose eyesight did improve did so drastically.

Experts say this type of approach to treating the blinding eye illness has never been tried before. Yet progress still must be made as ranibizumab has not shown possibility of being utilized as a concrete solution. David M. Brown, an eye surgeon from the Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas, agrees that approaches to medicine are becoming increasingly complex as researchers take a deeper look into how a disease or virus specifically works so that they may create more effective ways to treat the fundamental processes that cause the disease. It is progressive that scientists are taking the creativity to borrow research and science from other areas, making connections and defying the conventional uses of treatments in medicine. Such researchers require initiative, willingness to take risks, and patience due to the fact that testing and observation of their work spans years.

I always find it intriguing when scientists borrow from areas that are usually considered separate from their field in order to progress their own field. Finding common threads in treatments for two dissimilar illnesses shows how the realms of science are interconnected and influence each other. These studies also show that care for the older generation and their well-being is still on the social list of priorities in a society where great emphasis is placed on the faced-paced lifestyles and fresh-faced motivations of the young. I hope that such cross-examination of science becomes more prevalent as many various fields, not just medicine, as the practice has the potential to benefit all types of research and foster amity and solidarity between different studies.

A Stimulation of the Blood Clotting Process

2006-10-04T18:40:00.000-07:00

On October 4, 2006, in the online article “‘Artificial blood cells’ could heal surfaces” (found at: http://www.newscientisttech.com/article/dn10231-artificial-blood-cells-could-heal-surfaces.html ), NewScientist.com reported that new technology has been created to fill surface defects using microscopic capsules.

Using computer stimulation, researchers have developed models to show how “microscopic polymer capsules” can be used to fill in surface gaps on microscopic levels and in microscopic materials. The specialized capsules would be fed onto the damaged surface through a liquid medium so that the capsules could roll across. Both the surface and the capsules are coated with a water-repellent, or “hydrophobic,” substance to allow smooth movement between them. However, if the microcapsules reach a break in the hydrophobic layer, where a surface gap would be, they would naturally clump together at the defect because there would be no water-repellent material to allow the capsules to continue rolling. At the defective site, the capsules would steadily release nanoparticles that would fill in the gap in the surface. Once filled, and the planar surface back intact, the microcapsule can continue to flow with the liquid.

Anna Balazs leads the team of scientists at Pittsburgh University who have been studying models of this process on a level of nanometers. Basically, this process of filling in gaps is just a synthetic mimic of naturally occurring biological functions, such as the clotting of blood in the human body. I find it interesting that there are researchers whose sole goal is to recreate processes that already occur. However, it is odd that there seem to be no applicable motivators for Balazs and her team with their developments. They have just made a computer-generated model for other scientists and engineers to utilize and benefit from. Other studies conducted and overseen my Balazs all involve the explanation of how things move or function, very theoretical work. The greatest motivating factor for Balazs is not to discover or develop new ideas, but to help others do so by doing background work on what facts already exist.

I can definitely see the uses that a repairing process could benefit. For instance, this technology has could be used to fix micro-fluidic chips, scratched goggles or glasses, surface sensitive optical materials, microchip or computer parts, or even on compact discs. I find it slightly disheartening that some scientists are not willing to go the extra distance to apply their science. Though I am not denying that they may have very valid reasons for not doing so, this phenomenon may explain why scientific progress can be very slow and strenuous. It takes lengthy periods of time to develop, test, retest, and verify every specific detail of a scientific development, sometimes by a multitude of intellectuals from various different fields. I also can see the benefit of dividing up the work, if you will, allowing different researchers to specialize in a very narrow subject area. Though this make me time-exhaustive, this sort of peer review system is still good to maintain the integrity of scientific discovery and development.

Additional Sources:

Kuksenok, Katie, comp. "Soft Condensed Matter: Theory & Stimulation: Research Group of Professor Anna Balazs." 2 June 2006. Chemical Engineering Department, University of Pittsburgh. 4 Oct. 2006 .

"News: Dr. Anna Balazs." School of Engineering: University of Pittsburgh. 2 Aug. 2006. University of Pittsburgh. 4 Oct. 2006 .

LEDs Becoming the Light Wave of the Future

2006-09-25T06:40:00.000-07:00

The Economist.com explains in the online article “An even brighter idea” (found at: http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displayStory.cfm?story_id=7904236) on September 21, 2006 that the generalized commercial use of light-emitting diodes is closer than one might think.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit monochromatic light with no radiation, ultraviolet rays, or infrared light. Composed of two kinds of semiconductors: the n-type, which are negatively charged electrons, and the p-type, which are positively charged “holes” in which electrons can join, LEDs function when electricity is applied causing electrons to flow from opposites sides into the junction. The electrons pair and emit energy in the form of light. By varying the materials of the semiconductors, the properties of the emitted light can be tweaked. Adjusting proportions of red, green, blue, and white LEDs allows users to modify the light to their liking. Compared to traditional incandescent light bulbs, which are only 5% energy efficient, LED lights take up less space, are shock resistant, and are extremely energy-efficient, lasting up to a decade.

In 1962, Nick Holonyak of General Electric learned that semiconductors had the ability to produce infrared light. George Craford invented the first yellow LED, and he joined a company called Monsanto in 1967 where LEDs were mass-produced for the first time for calculators and watch lights. The development of blue and green LEDs with gallium nitride began in the late ‘60s by the Radio Corporation of America. When the research didn’t yield many practical results, most scientists gave up. It wasn’t until the late 1980s, when Nagoya University’s Isamu Akasaki made steps towards the first p-type semiconductor with gallium nitride, yet it was still too slow and the light too dim to be practical. Researcher Shuji Nakamura found why and improved the speed of the positive-negative light-emitting jointures, creating the first bright blue LED in 1993, and green and white LED soon after.

Over 40 years of persistence on the part of many different players developed LEDs into what they are today. In 1971, Monsanto printed an advertisement claiming that one day LEDs will probably be used for car headlights, an unimaginable notion at the time. Today, Craford says we are only a couple of years away from such a notion becoming reality. Craford is a great example of a man’s faith in the science potential. Imagine if nobody after Radio Corporation of America had come and picked up the pieces. Some just did not recognize the importance of the science. Yet, it took a man possessing simply interest in the subject – curiosity – to get the ball rolling in the 1980s. Nakamura had no PhD and never had anything published when he began his study. Also, previous discoveries building upon others to allow opportunities for future scientists became extremely imperative. Without traits as perseverance, conviction of work, and daring courage, the strides made in LED technology would not have been made.

I am amazed at the wonderful progress of researchers since the 1970s. LED efficiency has improved ten times every decade. Yet, I worry that researchers, in any field, have the justified tendency to repeat the same cycle of scrutiny as they did in the past. For example, the new OLEDs (organic LEDs) are receiving the same criticism that was once given to LEDs not too long ago. The projected benefits of LEDs are amazing. It can save money on electric bills and reduce energy demand and environmental pollution. My opinion is that researchers really need to put their best foot forward to see how real, practical, mainstream use of LEDs could be integrated into society. As Fred Schubert, a professor at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, says, “As researchers, we always have to be ready for surprises.”

Tackling the Genius of Mr. Einstein

2006-09-19T08:44:00.000-07:00

On September 18, 2006, BBC News reporter Jonathan Amos informs in the online article “Dead stars provide Einstein test’” (found at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5356910.stm) that scientists have found validity in Albert Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity by studying a set of inactive stars.

The concept of General Relativity explains that objects of different mass are attracted to one another because of the ability of space to curve. Professor Michael Kramer of the University of Manchester’s Jodrell Bank Observatory led a team of researchers who observed a double pulsar system of two dead stars situated 2,000 light-years from Earth. These stars ran out of nuclear energy and exploded to leave behind sections of their neutron cores. As the cores orbit around each other, they discharge columns of radio waves that can be detected from Earth, acting like galactic space clocks. By studying the effects of each core’s radio waves in the other’s warped space-time, the scientists set up an ideal test for Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. Measuring the delay of the radio beams that pass through the curved space of the other pulsating core, the researchers proved Einstein’s calculations within a margin of 0.05-percent.

Since its publication in 1916, Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity has stood very firm in its findings for almost a century. He predicted that a double pulsar system, like the one studied by Kramer and his team, should also discharge gravitational waves as the two cores slowly come together. Though indirect proof of this concept was found – the two stars are attracted to each other at 7mm a day – there is no direct evidence to support the stars emitting gravitational pulls. The preparation for more long-term studies is evident to the scientists. Kramer realizes that Einstein’s theory most likely needs to be updated due to encompass large-scale application and quantum mechanics. Time, literally, seems to not be on the side of Kramer and his team. Three years since the discovery of their double pulsar system has finally yielded them with results, and they have decades of solid theory that they must attempt to alter. The motivation to detect these elusive gravitational waves in places such as black holes, and to find the “breaking point,” as Kramer put it, empowers these scientists to crack the fundamentals of Einstein’s long held theory. Even very well-respected scientific professionals are taking the chance on the theories they learned and trying to improve and expound them. Kramer and his team want to continually dig objectively deeper beyond the surface of science, and the fact that they did such a test as this shows their determination to make sure knowledge is accurately supported and valid.

I found this research extremely interesting, as it finally allowed me to understand one of Einstein’s concepts, which often enough are presented to students in methods seem to boil extremely complex ideas into simple and abstract formulas and theories. However, I find it hard to embrace the full accomplishments of this discovery, as much of the public commonly does, as physical astronomy does not necessarily apply directly to our everyday lives in any pragmatic manner. Yet, it is rare that one hears of scientists confronting a well-respected intelligence from history. At the same time as it is refreshing and unexpected, such a confrontation cannot help but raise the issue of how we should initially trust what we have been taught. This serves as a good reminder to always keep asking questions and asking “why?”

The Source of All Meaning

2006-09-11T07:55:00.000-07:00

Elli Leadbeater reported on September 6, 2006 in the BBC News online article “Strange ducks shape brain science” (found at http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/science/nature/5321054.stm) that researches have confidently found the brain region responsible for the storage of meaning.

After 150 years, the argument of which sector of the brain takes responsibility for the processing of meaning has been settled by researchers at the University of Manchester. They believe the temporal pole, the area just under the ears, is the area of brain tissue that stores meaning. Professor Matthew Lambon Ralph and his team have focused on the temporal pole as the culprit before, evidenced on scans of semantic dementia patients. Such patients who cannot clearly differentiate between the concepts of “bird” and “dog,” for example, have damaged or lost tissue from the temporal pole. However, concrete results were hard to find as these patients probably had other brain damage. Researches thus performed on people with damage-free brains ‘transcranial magnetic stimulation’ or ‘TMS,’ which uses magnetic field pulses to tire sections of the brain so it works improperly for a short period of time. In the normal patients, similar symptoms of the dementia patients were mildly displayed, understanding concepts at 10-percent slower rate. Lambon Ralph states that sufferers from abnormal temporal pole function hazily forget more and more details of word definitions or concepts over time.

Scientists researching abstract data as human reaction and brain psychology have the daunting task of finding true quantitative statistics for experiments that have the possibility for an infinite array of results. Perhaps this is why such as debate over the issue of where meaning is stored in the mind has been stretched out for 150 years. Originally, many scientists looked at the Wernicke’s area of the brain as the center for meaning computation. Though close to the temporal pole region, research has yet to be done on Wernicke’s area using TMS. Scientists studying within this field must be creative in their persistence in looking at alternate pathways to solutions or explanations, especially over centuries of focus on the same issue. Admirable as well is that the University of Manchester research team continues to put their findings to pragmatic use, working with speech therapists to help patients suffering from semantic dementia.

Advances in the field of mental illness, such as the confirmation of the temporal pole’s function, truly display the persistence of those wanting to find cures and answers. Personally, I know such a discovery can alter the emotions of any dementia patient’s family greatly. My grandfather slowly degenerated, in part, to dementia last year. I cannot help but wonder if such techniques as TMS could have been used to better diagnose or help treat his brain malfunctions. Families of patients in various stages of brain damage and diseases should be comforted to know that they can see progress being made in a field where immediate improvements are hard to witness. Long-term science should also be seen as beneficial in the long-run, as important strides can still be made, though the public might not see or be affected by such studies in their lifetime.

Advances in Fighting Anthrax

2006-09-04T18:34:00.000-07:00

On August 28, 2006, BBC News reported in the online article “Scientists find ‘anthrax blocker’” (found at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/5284996.stm) that researchers have created an inhibitor to aid in the current treatment of individuals infected by the deadly anthrax disease.

Anthrax is an infectious toxin that invades the body’s through viruses, bacteria, or spores. Such simple modes of intoxication, such as inhalation, have made the disease famous in its uses for bioterrorism purposes. Current treatment for anthrax consists of antibiotics which can only prevent the fatal effects of the pathogens from progressing faster. The toxin’s structure can change and transform, making it much harder for a consistent antibiotic treatment to effectively work. Easy methods of mutation by persons in a laboratory setting also present an additional fallibility to current antibiotics and add to the uncertainty of more unknown bioterrorist threats. Thus, the death rate of those infected by anthrax is seventy-five percent even with the availability and use of antibiotics. To overcome the obstacle of any antibiotic resistance, the newly discovered inhibitor attaches to the same bodily receptors at multiple sites where the anthrax pathogen links itself, allowing any antibiotics to attach to the inhibitor instead of the mutating pathogen. Called a polyvalent inhibitor, the blocker makes similar “receptor-binding peptides” in order to be more effective in fighting the toxin.

Though extensive research and development has been done regarding this new ‘anthrax blocker,’ scientists and experts all agree that although benefits can be found, more work must be performed. Dr. Ravi Kane of New York’s Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute states that using the new blocker in conjunction with current antibiotic treatments will likely aid anthrax victims by counteracting the poisonous pathogen. Observing rats as test subjects, Oxford University scientists have carefully tried different variations of the inhibitor to determine the best structure possible without any ill side affects to the animals. The next step for researchers is to branch out their findings with the application of the blocker to human beings. Even more imperative is the scientists’ role of planning and precision in order to explore uncharted territory without severely risking patients or worsening the deteriorative process of anthrax in people tested. However, scientists also find other positive uses for such a discovery. Dr. Shiranee Sriskandan of London’s Imperial College points out that the inhibitor can be used in new ways to find activity that would help prevent the spread of other toxins such as SARS, influenza, and Aids. Sriskandan is careful to warn that the inhibitor at this point can only aid current anthrax treatments and vaccination, not solve the problem. At this stage of the fight against anthrax, scientists must possess vigilance and steadfastness to see if real-life cases can be effectively treated, which could take decades to determine.

Widespread concern for such rapidly-spreading ailments like anthrax and HIV-Aids seem to rise and fall with the waves of publicity from news coverage of a dangerous event concerning the disease. The public spotlight on anthrax as a bioterrorist weapon in recent years had put a higher importance on the advances made in treating the fatal infection. Such a discovery illustrates a great testament to the consistency of scientists and the field of medicine to keep discussing and exploring the issues that may be disregarded or pushed aside by the general knowledge of the public. This is a reminder that there is always space into which our scientific facts can expand. We do not always know everything in practicing healthcare, and there still exists many realms of unexplored ground in innumerable aspects of medicine.