Research News You Can Use

What Happens to the Relationship When Couples Have a Baby?

2007-03-30T08:01:00.000-04:00

Submitted by: Heidi Liss Radunovich, PhD, Assistant Professor of Human Development

Salmela-Aro, K., Aunola, K., Saisto, T., Halmesmäki, E., & Nurmi, J. (2006). Couples share similar changes in depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction anticipating the birth of a child [Electronic version]. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 23, 781-803.

Introduction

Although it is evident that the birth of a child has a large impact on the relationship of a couple, the exact mechanisms of how it affects the relationship are less clear. Previous studies have not looked at this issue longitudinally (following a couple over time), compared those having their first child with those having a later child, or looked at both members of the couple as well as their interaction. This study, which took place in Finland, takes a more thorough look at the adjustment of both members of the couple over time. They sought to examine both depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction in both members of a couple over time: as they were preparing for and after the birth of their first child; whether the two issues impacted one another; whether there were differences between it being a first or later child; and did likelihood of divorce increase with the birth of a child, and with changes in depressive symptoms and marital satisfaction.

Methodology

Although 407 women who attended prenatal care were originally contacted to participate in the study, 320 women agreed to participate (32 refused, 20 miscarried, and 28 were single so not eligible for the study). There were 260 male partners of these women who also participated in the study. Over the course of the study both members of the couple were surveyed 4 times: early in the pregnancy (around 12 weeks), one month before the birth (around 36 weeks), 3 months after the birth, and around 2 years after the birth. At the end of the study, 187 females and 127 males had completed all measures. Interestingly, those who dropped out of the study had lower marital satisfaction at the start of the study.

Depression was examined at all 4 points by using the Beck Depression Inventory; the couple’s marital satisfaction was examined at all 4 points by using the Dyadic Adjustment Scale; and whether or not a couple had divorced was assessed at point 4 (2 years after birth) by using the Life Changes Questionnaire. Additionally, age, education, employment, marital status, and number of children were recorded at the start of the study. Multilevel modeling was used to examine the relationships among the variables for each individual and for the couple as a unit.

Main Ideas

Depression and relationship satisfaction seemed consistent within a couple, such that higher depressive symptoms in one spouse meant that the other spouse was likely to have depressive symptoms, and level of relationship satisfaction was similar for each member in a couple. Also, depression and relationship satisfaction seemed to go together, such that higher depressive symptoms were associated with lower relationship satisfaction, and lower depressive symptoms with higher relationship satisfaction. However, it is unclear why they go together: do depressive symptoms lead to lower relationship satisfaction, or does lower relationship satisfaction lead to more depressive symptoms (or both)?

Another interesting finding was that those who had more depressive symptoms before the birth of the baby showed a reduction in symptoms after the birth of the baby, but those with lower levels of symptoms at the start showed an increase in depressive symptoms after the birth of the baby. There was a similar finding for relationship satisfaction: low relationship satisfaction at the start of the pregnancy was associated with higher satisfaction after the birth, and higher relationship satisfaction before the birth was associated with lower relationship satisfaction after the birth. There were also gender differences: women were more likely to have depressive symptoms than men, but women were more satisfied with the relationship before the birth of the baby, and showed less of a decrease in satisfaction after the birth of the baby than did men. Interestingly, those couples that already had children showed more depressive symptoms and lower relationship satisfaction during this pregnancy, but there was improvement after birth.

Some of these findings differ from the results of other studies. The research literature has shown that how satisfied you are in your relationship decreased for most couples after the birth of a child, but couples who were happier in their relationship before the baby had less of a decrease in satisfaction (e.g., Shapiro, Gottman, & Carrere, 2000). It is unclear why this study found different results, but perhaps some of it could be related to cultural differences (previous studies were conducted in the US or similar countries), or societal policy differences (in Finland there is state supported medical care, paid time off from work, and supplemental money provided to parents until the child is age 3) that could lead to different results. It could also be the way that researchers look at the issues (how marital satisfaction is measured and when).

Implications for Extension Programs

For Extension agents who work with parents expecting a child (particularly their first child), it may be good to inform them that symptoms of depression are common after the birth of the child, especially for women. It may also be good to prepare expectant parents for some of the changes that could occur in their relationship with their partner, and help them to strengthen their relationship in anticipation of the demands of a new baby. However, it is important to remember that not all couples are the same, and culture or circumstances may play a part in the changes that occur with the birth of a child.

Conclusion

Although previous research suggests that couples’ satisfaction with their relationship reduces with the birth of a child, and that happiness with the relationship prior to the birth of a child predicts happiness after the birth of the child, this study suggests that this mechanism may not work the same way in all couples or in all cultures. In this study couples whose relationships were unhappy prior to the birth of the child showed improvement, while those who were happy prior to the birth of the child showed reductions in happiness. There were consistent reports from both partners in a couple: if one person was happy in the relationship, the other would report a similar level of happiness. Finally, it was found that depressive symptoms and relationship satisfaction had an inverse relationship, so those with high levels of depressive symptoms had lower levels of relationship satisfaction, while those with fewer depressive symptoms reported higher levels of relationship satisfaction. Although these states (depressive symptoms and relationship satisfaction) vary together, it is unclear whether one causes the other.

Additional References

Shapiro, A.F., Gottman, J., & Carrere (2000). The baby and the marriage: Identifying factors that buffer against decline in marital satisfaction after the first baby arrives. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 59-70.

A Look at Dairy Consumption Habits

2007-03-30T08:00:00.008-04:00

Submitted by: Glenda Warren, MS, RD, CFCS

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Fulgoni III, Victor, et al. 2007/2. Dairy Consumption and Related Nutrient Intake in African-American Adults and Children in the United States: Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 1994-1996, 1998, and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2000. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 107, no. 2:256-264.

Introduction

This study sought to establish baseline data of the dairy consumption and the intake of dairy related nutrients by African American adults and children. Researchers compared the data with dairy consumption data of non-African Americans of all ages.

Methodology

Data in the study came from analyzing the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 1994-1996, 1998 and the NHANES 1999-2000.

Main Ideas

Investigators found that all age groups of African Americans consumed fewer mean servings daily of dairy, and that they have lower mean intakes of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorous. The comparisons were made of the differences related to age, gender and race.

In the discussion, these researchers noted the probable relationship of lactose maldigestion as partial blame for the low dairy consumption and provided some dietary management strategies that have been effective in addressing lactose intolerance.

Emphasis was also placed on the “total nutrient package found in dairy foods” and the advantage of dairy foods over other foods as a primary source of dietary calcium. Low-fat dairy foods not only provide an excellent source of calcium but also provide significant amounts of other nutrients necessary for good health. These include Vitamins A, D, B-12, riboflavin and potassium among others . The nutrients in dairy foods act together to increase the overall nutrition gained from intake.

Implications for Extension

Culturally sensitive approaches are needed to promote consumption of dairy products and other calcium rich sources in the diet.
Lactose intolerance should be addressed with effective management strategies. Examples:

Consuming the daily recommended amount of dairy in several small portions throughout the day
Try lactose-reduced dairy products. Look for lactose-reduced or lactose-free on the labels.
Dairy products consumed as part of meals may ease digestion.
Choose yogurt or natural cheeses as a source of dairy nutrients.

Use delivery systems that have been effective in reaching African Americans. These include:

Schools
Churches
Community Health Centers
Other community centers and organizations

Leadership Styles and Leadership Change in Human and Community Service Organizations

2007-03-30T08:00:00.007-04:00

Submitted by: Elizabeth B. Bolton, Ph.D.

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Hillel, S. (2006). “Leadership Styles and Leadership Change in Human and Community Service Organizations” Nonprofit Leadership and Management. 17(2). 179-194.

Introduction

This article deals with leaders who must be able to adapt their style to the changing environment of the organization and understand the circumstances that are occurring in each phase of the organization’s development. This is the main argument of the author who notes that if they fail to adapt the goals of the organization will not be attained. Further, if a leader is highly effective at one phase in the organization, he/she may not be able to transfer this effectiveness to another phase in the organization’s development. From these perspectives, the author develops a tool to assist organizations in determining what type of leadership is needed based on the environment at each stage in the organization’s life cycle. In order to use the tool, it is necessary to first analyze the current environment in both the external and internal dimensions.

Methodology

Using many studies on leadership, the author proposes a theoretical model, which classifies leadership types into four quadrants: Task versus people orientation and internal versus external orientation. Four types of leadership emerge: Task oriented internally focused, task oriented externally focused, people oriented externally focused, and people oriented internally focused. To use this methodology, an organization should first determine the current state of the organization and then decide which of these leadership types if the best fit for the time. The selection of an effective leader can be made based on this analysis. The author looks at four types of organizations and suggests which type of leadership would be the most effective.

Main Ideas

The major concepts are defined as follows. Task orientation "relates to the leader’s emphasis …on functions that are perceived as instrumental aspects of the leader’s role and enable him to focus on goal achievement with minimal consideration of the human factor" (p. 185) These tasks include planning, organization and budgeting. People orientation, in contrast, relates to the leader’s emphasis on functions such as motivating workers, training and development, listening and empathy, interpersonal communication…”(p. 185). People orientation includes “the expressive aspects of the leader’s role, including the leader’s body language and facial expressions, which convey the leader’s expectations of their followers and reflect the relationships that develop between them” (p. 186). The second concept of the theory based model, internal versus external orientation, refers to “the importance of external environment in influencing the organization and structural behavior…versus the leader’s orientation to the organization’s internal affairs” (p. 186).

The task oriented internal leader:

Places emphasis on achieving organization goals, taking the organizational structure and internal work procedures into account.

Gives emphasis to the roles of planning, coordination, administrative communication, budgeting and decision making.

The leadership style is authoritative, centralized; no delegation of authority and no involvement of organization members in decision making.

There is a tight control and supervision closely linked to processes and outcomes.

The leader does not tolerate deviations from the rules and processes that regulate the life of the organization. Very low tolerance for ambiguity.

The task oriented external leaders

Focus on achieving organizational goals and attaining legitimization and resources from the external environment.

Leadership style is authoritative, centralized, directive, and focused on attaining resources establishing and expanding the organizational domain, improving the organization’s competitive ability in an attempt to accumulate an organizational and personal power advantage over other organizations.

Leader is task oriented, without considering the human factor which is a means to achieving his goals.

Decision-making and problem-solving processes are based on the leader’s formal authority.

The people oriented internal leaders:

The main focus is on people. He or she motivates, provides incentives, delegates authority, empower, consults, and involves others.

Efforts focus on selecting, developing, building, and guiding the staff and co-opting them to achieve the goals of the organization.

Emphasis on division of labor and roles, including enlargement and enrichment.

The leader motivates workers to seek self-fulfillment, sets challenging goals, and encourages self-development.

The leader develops tools, mechanisms, methods, and technologies for problem solving and conflict resolution.

People oriented external leaders:

The emphasis is on managing the external environment, reducing the organization’s dependence on agents in the environment, and increasing the dependence of others on the organization.

Considerable investment in developing human resources, training, and preparing staff to copy with constraints imposed on the organization by the external environment.

The leader and the administrative staff engage in political activity and form alliances and coalitions with various elements in the environment. The emphasis is on alleviating pressure from interest groups and constituencies; screening the environment to identify opportunities, risks, and threats.

Emphasis on the importance and contribution of the human factor; invests in developing the functional maturity and professional competence of the staff in order to allow for development of relations with the external environment and management by exception.

Conclusion

The main conclusion from this article is that leader should be able to adapt his or her behavior as the organization transitions from one stage to another. Obviously this does not always happen and often the leader’s style is at cross purposes with the organization’s needs and life cycle. If the leader is not able to adapt his/her style to the organization’s life cycle, then it is best to choose a new leader. This model can be useful for boards of directors to assess where the organization is and what it needs before choosing a leader. A congruence between the organization’s life cycle and the leader’s style can result in more effective leadership for the organization. The author proposes that “individuals have to make adaptations in their leadership pattern—whether they are autocratic, democratic-participatory, charismatic, task-oriented, or person oriented—if they which to be effective and achieve their goals “ (P. 192).

Implications for Extension Programs

Extension county faculty deals with leaders in many environments, some of which are local and others regional and statewide leaders. It is not often that anyone has control of enough variables in the environment to change it substantially. The value of this research then is for county extension faculty to see themselves in one of the four leadership styles and determine if there is any congruence between their leadership style and the organizations they work with. When there is an uncomfortable fit, strive to change your style so that it is appropriate for the environment known as the workplace.

What Does Organic Mean?

2007-03-30T08:00:00.006-04:00

Submitted by: Mickie Swisher, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Sustainable Agriculture

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Consumers purchase organic foods for many reasons. Some believe that organic foods are “safer” than conventionally produced foods. Others believe that organic foods are “better for you” than conventional products. Others want to support food production systems that are environmentally sound. Others have yet different reasons for buying organic products. Consumers need to understand the rules so that they can decide whether buying organic foods can help them achieve their goals, whatever they may be.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) developed legal rules about organic foods that went into effect about three years ago. These rules are very detailed. They cover how the food was produced, how it was processed, and even how it is transported. The rules are complex. Here we will just discuss a few items that may be of special interest to some consumers.

Are organic foods produced without the use of pesticides?

The short answer is “no.” However, it’s a good deal more complicated than this simple answer implies. The National Organic Standards require that farmers must use three levels of pest management. Pests include insects, pathogens, and even weeds. To be able to sell a product as organic, a farmer must use levels one and two before resorting to level three. The first level is designed to prevent a problem from ever occurring. A producer might, for example, select cultivars (varieties) of a crop that are disease-resistant. The second level is to use cultural practices to help prevent and control any problem that does arise. This could include things like releasing beneficial insects to help control insects that are pests. The third level is to apply some sort of active agent to control the pest. This is allowed if the first two levels of protection and control fail. Most of these agents are natural substances that act as pesticides. One example is to use Bacillus thuringiensis or “BT.” This is a naturally occurring bacterium that controls some pests. Both conventional and organic farmers use it.

However, there are also some synthetic or “chemical” pesticides that can also be used. These are probably not what most of us consider as “chemical pesticides” in the traditional use of the word. Plastic mulch – a plastic sheet applied in the field to prevent weeds from growing – is allowed for example. So are hydrogen peroxide, copper sulfate and insecticidal soaps. On the other hand, some “natural” pesticides – such as nicotine – are prohibited. So, it is incorrect to say that organic foods are produced without the use of pesticides, or even without the use of synthetic pesticides. However, these substances are applied basically as a “last resort” measure when level one and two measures for protection and control have not worked, and the list of permitted synthetic substances is not extensive. Clearly, the intent of the law is to greatly reduce the need for application of active agents in general, and to rely primarily on natural cycles and systems, like naturally occurring beneficial insects, to manage pests.

What about growth hormones, vaccines, antibiotics and such?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), growth hormones and ionizing radiation are all prohibited under the National Organic Standards. Vaccines are permitted and are used to protect the health of animals. Antibiotics are prohibited, but farmers are not allowed to withhold treatment from animals that are ill. This would constitute cruelty to the animal. The rules governing the use of antibiotics when an animal does become ill are very explicit. For example, if an animal becomes ill and is treated with an antibiotic, the animal must be clearly identified and cannot be sold as “organic.”

Are organic foods “better for you”?

The USDA makes no claims whatsoever that organically produced foods are safer or more nutritional than conventionally produced foods. The National Organic Standards cover how food products are grown, handled, processed and transported, not about the nature of the food product itself. Consumers should beware of claims that organic foods are more nutritious; have “disease-fighting” qualities and the like. The research to support such claims, by and large, has not been completed and the National Organic Program was not set up to encourage people to buy organic products, or to “protect” consumers from any known or perceived risk associated with conventionally produced foods. Rather, the intent is to make sure, when you do choose to buy an organic food product, that you know exactly what standards were applied in its production and processing and that the label on the product guarantees that the National Standards were met.

Are organic food production systems environmentally sound?

Certainly, the intent of the National Organic Standards is to encourage the use of environmentally sound agricultural production practices. USDA says that:

“Organic food is produced by farmers who emphasize the use of renewable resources and the conservation of soil and water to enhance environmental quality for future generations. Organic meat, poultry, eggs, and dairy products come from animals that are given no antibiotics or growth hormones. Organic food is produced without using most conventional pesticides; fertilizers made with synthetic ingredients or sewage sludge; bioengineering, or ionizing radiation. “

The regulations require that farmers have detailed plans for protecting soil and water quality and natural ecosystems. For example, the rules state that farmers must use a system of crop rotation and cover crops, both of which are designed to help ensure the long term productivity of the land.

However, many conventional farmers use these same practices. Soil conservation, for example, is not a concern just for organic farmers, but for most farmers who want to protect this critical resource for the future. Similarly, virtually every farmer is concerned about water quality and many farms, not just organic farms, are subject to regulatory and inspection programs to ensure that water quality is not compromised through farming practices. Protecting the resource base for food production is a key concept that underlies the National Organic Standards. Nonetheless, many farmers today are deeply concerned about the sustainability of our food production systems as well as natural ecosystems and use every practice possible to ensure their protection.

Reference

United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Marketing Service. The National Organic Standards. Retrieved from http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/standards/FullText.pdf on March 18, 2007.

Putting Things in Perspective: Is It Necessary to Sterilize Sponges and Dishcloths in Your Kitchen?

2007-03-30T08:00:00.005-04:00

Submitted by: Amy Simonne, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Food Safety and Quality

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A recent research publication in the December 2006 issue of Journal of Environmental Health regarding the use of microwave to sterilize cellulose sponges contaminated with raw sewage had brought up a lot of attention to consumers (1). However, it is imperative that consumers acquire additional interpretation and understanding of the experiment before applying the study to a real life situation in their own kitchen.

Researchers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) have definitely shown that kitchen cloths, sponges and other kitchen food contact surfaces are important factors contributing to cross-contamination of potentially harmful microbes to foods in the home kitchen and restaurants. Many methods (chemical, physical [e.g. heat]) can be used for disinfecting or sanitizing the harmful microbes from those surfaces, but in relation to the use of microwave one study was already conducted by Park and Cliver in 1997 (4)

Park and Cliver (4) clearly demonstrated that household microwave can be use for sanitizing cellulose sponges and cotton cloths. The researchers contaminated sponge and disk cloths with two strains of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcusaureus, two of the typical foodborne bacteria at levels between five hundred thousand to ten million cells and then heated the materials with microwave oven at highest setting (800W at 2450MHz). They found that after 30 seconds, no living bacterial cells were found in full size sponges and dishcloths, however, after wetting additional time required for both were 60 and 180 seconds, respectively. The result suggested that microwave heating is affective for decontamination of cellulose sponge and cotton dishcloths.

In comparison of this study (http://www.ees.ufl.edu/) and the previous work by Park and Cliver (4) in 1997 the conclusions are remarkably similar. Most bacteria are killed within two minutes of microwave heating.

What is the catch? Most scientific studies were conducted under specific conditions, and thus the results may not be necessary applicable to every situation. In both studies, cellulose sponge was the only sponge tested, and thus the effects on other type of sponges many not be the same. Furthermore, because the killing effects on the microbes in both studies come from heat generated by the vibration of water molecules by the microwave, rather than the microwave energy itself (10), changes in the mass of the material and the amount of water may affect the heating rate.

Let’s look at the definitions

Sterilization is a process to eliminate all form of microbial agents such as bacteria, fungi, viruses from a surface, food or biological culture medium. Sterilization process needs some special tools or equipments (autoclave, high dose irradiation, or some form of chemical treatment). Once sterilized, the objects can be re-contaminated again if not protected.

Disinfecting or sanitizing is to reduce the number of microorganism or to partially remove some microbes from a clean surface or clean object to a safe level.

Cleaning is a process of removing food and other type of soil from a surface or objects.

Take home message

Is it necessary to sterilize sponges and dishcloths in your kitchen?

No, per definitions, it is not necessary to sterilize sponges or dishcloths in the home kitchen, but regular cleaning (after each use) and sanitizing (every other day) is definitely necessary. Cleaning remove source of nutrient for microbial growth, and sanitizing reduce the number of bacteria and other germs so that they remain at a low number.

Steps to sanitizing or disinfecting household sponges (cellulose sponges) or cotton dishcloths

In order for sanitizing process to be effective, the sponges or cotton dishcloths must be cleaned first.

Sanitizing process can be done with household chemicals or with heat. For chemical sanitizers to work properly they must be used in a proper manner; this means that a proper combination of concentration and time must be observed. Using chemical sanitizing in home setting can be difficult for many consumers. Further, if the chemicals are not properly used it may cause some harm to the users. Therefore, using heat especially with the microwave can present a simple solution at household level.

In order to meet a minimum requirement for killing live bacterial cells, a temperature of 171ºF or 77 ºC for at least 30 seconds is necessary. This could be done by either heating cellulose sponges in hot water at 171ºF or 77 ºC for at least 30 seconds or using the microwave heating as an alternative. Things to remember: for microwave heating, cellulose sponges must be wet with water.

In the case of microwave heating, both studies (UF study and Park and Cliver) had recommended 2-3 minutes respectively; this allow enough time for the materials to reach a minimum sanitizing temperature.

Use caution when heating sponges or dishcloths in hot water or microwave! Some newer dishwashers may also have sanitizing options for operations.

References

D.K. Park, G. Bitton, and R. Melker. 2006. Microbial inactivation by microwave radiation in the home environment. J. Environ. Health. 69(5):17-24.
C. E. Enriquez, V.E. Enriquez, and C.P. Gerba. 1997. Reduction of bacterial contamination in the household kitchen environment through the use of self disinfecting sponge. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation. 17(9): 550-554.
D. Worsfold and C. Griffith. 1997. Keeping it clean – A study of the domestic kitchen. Food-Science -&- Technology Today. 11(1):28-35.
P.K. Park and D. O. Cliver. 1997. Disinfection of kitchen sponges and dishcloths by microwave oven. Dairy, Food and Environmental-Sanitation. 17(3): 146-149.
U. Mori, T. Nakano, K. Harada, and T. Ohnishi. 1996. Various antiseptic techniques in the kitchen against Escherichia coli and Vibrio parahemolyticus J. Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents- Japan. 24(2):115-118.
M.S. Yepiz-Gomez, K.R. Bright, and C.P. Gerba. 2006. Identity and numbers of bacteria present on table tops and in dishcloths used to wipe down table tops in public restaurants and bars. Food Protection Trends. 26(11):786-792.
C. Chaidez and C.P. Gerba. 2000. Bacteriological analyses of cellulose sponges and loofahs in domestic kitchens from developing country. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation. 20(11):834-837.
M.P. Doyle, K.L. Ruoff, M. Pierson, W. Weinberg, B. Soule and B.S. Michaels. 2000. Reducing transmission of infectious agents in the home. Control points. Dairy, Food and Environmental Sanitation. 20(6):418-425.
P. Rusin, P. Orosz-Coughlin, and C. Gerba. 1998. Reduction of faecal coliform and heterotrophic plate count bacteria in the household kitchen and bathroom by disinfection with hypochlorite cleaners. J. Applied Microbiology. 85(5): 819-828.
Anonymous. 2007. News: Microwave oven can sterilize sponges, scrub pads. Food Protection Trends. 27(3):193.

Lead Poisoning and Children’s Health

2007-03-30T08:00:00.004-04:00

Submitted by: Hyun-Jeong Lee, Ph.D., Assistant Professor/Housing Specialist

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Heneman, K., and Zidenberg-Cherr, S. October – December 2006. “Is Lead Toxicity Still a Risk to U.S. Children?” California Agriculture 60 (4): 180-184.

Introduction

Lead is highly toxic and can be found in products we may contact in and around our homes on a daily basis (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA] 2007). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] surveillance data (CDC 2007), the rate of children who were found to have significant amount of lead in their blood (at or above 10 microgram per one deciliter, 10μg/dL) was declined from 1997 to 2005. However, EPA (2004) estimates that the United States still have 430,000 children age between 1 and 5 with blood-lead level (BLL) above 10μg/dL. Furthermore, the U.S. children are still exposed to the lead poisoning risks through many sources. The researchers of this study summarize current issues on U.S. children lead poisoning problems.

Main Ideas

Where We Find Lead

In the past, lead was used to make paint for easier application and lead-based paint (more than 0.06% lead by weight), remains in old houses, furniture, and even on children’s toys. In 1978, the Consumer Product Safety Commission prohibited to use lead-based paint on interior and exterior residential surfaces, toys, and furniture (CDC 1991). This means residents living in houses built after 1978 have less chance of exposure to lead hazards than pre-1978 house residents do. It does not mean that post-1978 houses are free from lead poisoning risk. Some older house plumbing contains lead and you may absorb it by drinking water directly from the old plumbing. We also can absorb lead from dust in the air we breathe. Lead can also come into your home if any of your household members works with lead and does not clean his/her body and clothes before coming home. Surprisingly, lead is still found on pottery, ceramic cookware, toys and even candies that are imported from certain foreign countries.

Lead Poisoning and Health Impact

Lead poisoning was referred as “one of the most common and preventable pediatric health problems.” the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (CDC 1991). Lead poisoning influences children much more seriously than adults. There are many reasons that young children have higher risk of lead poisoning and lead poisoning more seriously affects their health. In comparison to adults, in regards to body size, children drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more air. Their bodies are growing and absorb more lead. Lead damages their brain and nervous system are more easily. Most of all, they usually chew and suck almost everything (EPA 2007).

High levels of lead in children body may damage their brains, nervous system, and kidney, reduce IQ, slow down growth, and cause hearing problems. In addition, lead can cause behavior and learning problems and can result in coma, convulsions, and even death (EPA 2007; CDC 1991).

Suggestions to Prevent Lead Poisoning in Children

Consult your doctor for a blood lead level screening test if your children are age 72 months or younger, especially if you are living in a house built before 1978. Wash yourself and your babies often to reduce absorbance of lead. If you see any paint chips, clean them immediately. Regularly clean dust from your floors, window frames, windowsills, and other surface weekly. If you think your home has a lead problem contact professionals for inspection and necessary abatement. Children who eat nutritious foods with high iron and calcium (e.g., spinach and dairy products) tend to absorb less lead to their body. Make sure your children eat good foods to prevent lead poisoning (EPA, 2007).

Implications for Extension Programs

Outreach education activities of childhood lead poisoning prevention need to reach underserved populations, including low-income families reside in poor quality old houses and minorities speaking foreign languages, to emphasize the dangers of lead and teach families to reduce the harmful effects of lead in their child’s environment.

Further Information

Please visit EPA and CDC websites below for up-to-date information on children lead poisoning prevention:

EPA

CDC

Also, you can visit Florida Department of Health Lead Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program for information.

Additional References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1991). A statement by the centers for disease control and prevention. Retrieved on March 7, 2007.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). Measure B1: Lead in the blood of children. Retrieved on March 7, 2007.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Lead in paint, dust, and soil. Retrieved on March 7, 2007.

The Impact of 4-H Camp Experiences on Youth Development--Are You Maximizing This Experience for Youth Participants, Counselors and Volunteers?

2007-03-30T08:00:00.003-04:00

Submitted by: Joy Jordan, Ed.D., Associate Professor, Youth Development

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During the last three years, several states have been investigating the benefits and impacts of the 4-H camp experience on youth (Forsythe et al. 2004, Garst and Bruce, 2005; McNeeley, 2004) and most recently a dissertation study of counselors with the LSU 4-H program by Carter (2006). This dissertation uses a well-developed 70 item Youth Experiences Survey (Y.E.S.) created by Hanson and Larson in 2002 and modified in 2005 with stronger psychometric properties and scale reliability and validity. During 2005 and again in 2006, Florida 4-H has conducted surveys gathering youth-reported outcomes from their 4-H experiences. This article provides a few implications for practice, as county faculty prepare youth, volunteers and counselors for the upcoming summer camping season based on these studies’ results.

Does Camping Make a Difference?

In a closer look at the Florida data collected from over 800 4-H club members in 2005 and 2006, on average, about 45% of club members participated in residential camping. Youth assessments of life skills did reveal slightly higher mean scores for those camping compared to those not. Club members going to camp are also very active in other 4-H opportunities as well, with approximately 85% participating in county events, 65% in district and 47% in other state/national events. Therefore consistent with previous research, the “layering” of these multiple opportunities for youth tends to produce a higher level of reported skill development among youth.

Who is going to camp?

Again from the results of the 2005 and 2006 Florida 4-H club member survey, camp participation is similar to our overall participation in 4-H. Approximately 63% of the campers attended public schools, 10% private and 27% were home-schooled youth in 2005. Ethnically, three out of every four camper are Caucasian with the fourth of other ethnic origins, usually African American or Hispanic.

Who participates as 4-H Camp Counselors?

Consistently, 4-H camp counselors are long-term members of 4-H. Based on the sited research studies, youth participants’ average about 7 years of 4-H members. Camp Counselors, from Florida data in 2005, reveal staff may be primarily marketing this experience to youth who have four or more years of experience in 4-H.

What do they gain from being a Counselor?

Carter’s (2006) study reports the following findings for youth development resulting from the camp counselor experience. Carter measured findings, using the YES instrument on seven scales that breaks down into 20 subscales. The outcomes that youth reported the highest level of experiences at camp were:

Team work and Social Skills
Positive Relationships

Two subscales that reported significant outcomes were in areas of:

Diverse Peer Relationships
Leadership and Responsibility

One scale and one subscale reported low means reflecting youth had limited experiences in these areas:

Negative Experiences (i.e. stress, conflicts as counselor)
Social Exclusion

Carter’s study supported similar findings of previous studies, when outcomes are analyzed by ethnicity and gender. Gender does explain variance in scores in the Teamwork and Social skills outcomes and Positive Relationships, meaning girls tend to rate their acquisition of these skills higher than boys. Ethnicity was an explanatory variable in all of seven outcomes scales measured by Carter’s study. Thus, minority youth do show a slightly higher gain in skills as a result of their 4-H Camp Counselor experience.

What does this mean as you plan, market and implement summer camp programs for youth?

Camp does benefit youth and provide increased levels of skill development –what percentage of your county 4-H youth membership attend camp?
Camp Counselor experiences provide youth increased social development, relationships and leadership/responsibility.
Are you targeting the minority 4-H member population to participate in camp or young leaders to become counselors? Florida has very limited participation yet the benefits seem to be most beneficial to this audience.

For a more complete study of the scales and subscales that you might use to evaluate your camp counselors this summer, review the instrument used by Carter listed below.

Sources

Jordan, et al, (2005) A 2005 Evaluation of Florida 4-H Youth Development Program, University of Florida: Gainesville.

Carter, David N. (2006) Factors Relating to Developmental Experiences of Youth Serving as Louisiana Camp Counselors, Louisiana State University.

From Mothers to Daughters: Transgenerational Food and Diet Communication in an Underserved Group

2007-03-30T08:00:00.002-04:00

Submitted by: Eboni J. Baugh, Ph.D., CFLE, Assistant Professor of Family Life

PDF File

Wilson, Diane. “ From mothers to daughters: Transgenerational food and diet communication in an underserved group .” Journal of Cultural Diversity, 11, 1, (Spring, 2004), (accessed January 16, 2007).

Introduction

Research has highlighted the impact mothers have on the food choices, diet, and body image of their daughters. Through verbal messages and nonverbal modeling, mothers communicate expectations in relation to body size and subsequently influence the body satisfaction of their daughters. The influence found within this relationship is present within most American racial and ethnic groups, but often manifests itself in different ways.

There is extensive information available on a mother’s contribution to her daughter’s diet, excessive exercise, and body dissatisfaction leading to risk for eating disorders. Additionally, there is a generational link between this relationship and the risk for obesity. The risk for obesity tends to increase in low-income and minorities. Due to poor eating habits and limited information on proper nutrition, low-income Americans remain at an increased risk for obesity. African American women are at a greater risk for being

overweight and obese. Although, obesity rates in women have remained steady in recent years, 77.4% of African American women are overweight and/or obese in comparison to their White (57.3%) and Hispanic (71.9%) counterparts. For instance, mothers in low-income households tend to have a greater influence on food choices often due to lack of information on proper diet and nutrition.

This article addressed three key issues in the relationship between low-income African American mothers and daughters:

Type of food information transmitted by mothers to daughters
Mechanism through which food information is transmitted
Influence of food information on diet and behavior

Methodology

The researchers conducted focus groups with African American women aged 25- 65. Subjects were identified through African Methodist Episcopal churches in low-income South Carolina communities. A total of 21 women were asked questions focused on mother-daughter communication patterns, memories of childhood eating, and mothers as role models. Interviews were audio taped and transcribed for data analysis. Themes, which emerged from the transcripts, were then re-reviewed by the researchers.

Main Ideas

Recollections about childhood eating patterns

Participants reported that their childhood diets were limited, consisting of few food choices, due to large family sizes and parents who earn a low-income. Although limited, these women also reported that their childhood diets were healthy and consisted mainly of vegetables grown in family gardens.

Food advice received from the mother

Most participants remembered receiving verbal messages about food choice. They reported issues that were stressed in African American households:

Eat your vegetables
Drink milk
Breakfast is very important
You must eat three meals a day
Always, eat all that is served

Mothers as role models

The women in this article indicated that their mothers were primarily responsible for cooking and often acted as ‘food gatekeepers’ in the household. Mothers determined eating rituals and taught their daughters how to prepare food. Mothers were also role models in teaching their families to be thankful when little food was available.

Mother-Daughter communication about body size

The most interesting finding in this article related to age differences in communication about body size. Older African American women reported that body size and dieting to lose weight were not discussed in their households. Alternatively, younger African American women stated that they remember having mothers who were on diets to lose weight for appearance and health benefits. Interestingly, the mothers of these younger women did not want their daughters to lose weight, and even worried if daughters became too thin. Younger women also reported that they were less likely to continue the eating behaviors they learned during childhood.

Implications for Extension Programs

This study offers great insight for Extension professionals. Educators can use the mother-daughter relationship to educate families about proper diet and nutrition, especially among minorities. With increases in childhood and adult obesity among minority groups, it is imperative that nutrition programs are tailored to fit this audience. Intervention and education programs should be culturally relevant, increasing interest and effectiveness within minority populations. Future extension programs should consider the following:

Long lasting effects of limited childhood food choices
Distinguishing between nutritious and non-nutritious foods
The mothers’ role in food selection and preparation
African Americans acceptance of a larger body size for women
Transmission of verbal and non-verbal messages among mothers and daughters

Additional References

Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Curtin, L. R., McDowell, M. A., Tabak, C. J., & Flegal, K. M. (2006). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, 1549-1555.

Exploring Rural Community Agency Differences

2007-03-30T08:00:00.001-04:00

Submitted by: Mark Brennan, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Community Development

PDF File

Brennan, M.A. and Luloff, A.E. 2007. “Exploring Rural Community Agency Differences in Ireland and Pennsylvania”. Journal of Rural Studies 23: 52-61.

Overview

The role of community agency in the rural community and economic development processes needs to be better understood in America and other advanced, industrialized nations. Community agency is vital to protecting, retaining, and maintaining rural communities. A comparative study was designed to explore the role of community agency in contributing to local well-being in Ireland and America. This role was evaluated through the use of a multiple method framework based on extensive key informant interviews, focus groups, and analysis of household survey data. Overall, the findings indicate social interaction was the most important explanation of community agency, followed by community attachment, social ties/networks, and sociodemographics. Important differences were noted between Irish and Pennsylvania respondents. In both nations, regression models indicated social interaction was the most important factor associated with community agency. A pplied policy implications of these findings are advanced.

Implications for Research and Extension

This study was based on the premise that local residents acting together have the capacity to improve local well-being. Overall, the attitudes, beliefs, and actions of residents in the two nations were surprisingly similar despite important historical, cultural, and social distinctions. Regardless of differences in some conceptual areas identified in the analysis, social interaction was found to be the central element in community action for both nations.

The significance of social interaction in this study supports previous research. In all of the communities studied, those residents who routinely interacted with others on a non-required basis were more likely to be active in their communities. Applied uses of these findings could take the form of linking community development efforts with social groups, clubs, and organizations in which residents freely participate. These organizations could be made aware of community needs and encouraged to have outreach programs that partner with community action groups. Through these groups, members could be encouraged to take part in or support additional community wide efforts. Further, local groups and clubs could nominate members to represent their particular group on broader community development programs/committees.

Equally important, enhancement and promotion of venues for social interaction should be seen as a priority. Such venues can take a variety of physical and social forms. Included are the establishment of community centers, town halls, parks, and other facilities open to all residents and which serve as a location for a variety of services, functions, and events. These venues could provide an environment where residents can meet, interact, and discuss general issues relevant to the entire community. Planned community wide social events can also serve as a useful venue for interaction.

The findings of this research suggest that social interaction is a vital part of community agency, and consequently, the development of community. However continued research in more diverse areas will be needed to better evaluate the factors that explain how and why rural residents come together through community agency. This understanding and advancement of theory is critical to the empowerment of rural people and communities. It is this ability that allows rural residents to organize and enhance their capacity for locally based decision making and development while contributing to the general needs of their community.

Retirement Migration Definitions Matter

2007-01-29T08:08:00.000-05:00

Submitted by: Carolyn S. Wilken, Ph.D., M.P.H., Associate Professor, Extension Gerontology
PDF Version

Haas, W. H., Bradley, D. E., Longino, C. F., Stoller, E. P., & Serow, W. J. (2006). In retirement migration, who counts? A methodological question with economic policy implications. The Gerontologist, 46(6), 815-820.

In this study Hass and colleagues examined how the implications of various definitions of retirement migration influence programming and policy. Although one may think that Shakespeare’s admonition that ‘a rose by any other name smells as sweet’ would apply to describing older adults who we commonly call ‘snowbirds’, these researchers found that relying on a traditional age-based definition of retirement migration (people ages 60 and over who move across important political boundaries i.e. county, state, or nation) significantly miscounts the migrant population. Accurate population estimates have important policy and program planning implications, not to mention the structuring/restructuring of political districts.

The researchers identified 3 definitions of older adult migration:

1) Traditional Age-based Definition: Retired migrants age 60 and over.

2) Retirement-Based Definition 1: Retired migrants aged 50 or older who report working no more than 26 weeks a year and report receiving at least $1 in Social Security or disability income.

3) Retirement-based Definition 2: Retired migrants who are 50 or older who are not in the labor force and report receiving at least $1 in Social Security or disability income.

Using data from the long-form of the 2000 U.S. Census the authors found that using the traditional definition of retirement migration excludes those who retire earlier, at ages 50-59. Using retirement rather than age as a qualifier, the actual number of retired migrants was 21% less.

Florida, Arizona, California, Texas and North Carolina are the five top retirement migration hosts, or receiving states. A comparison of the rates of migration between each definition (for Florida) revealed important differences between definitions suggesting that specifying actual working/retirement status reduces the real number of older (50 years and older) migrants coming into Florida.

“So what?” you may ask.

Understanding the employment status of older migrants to a community leads to a better understanding of the economic impact of migration. Retirees bring with them transfer payments such as Social Security, private pensions, and equity income, as well as Medicare and generate what is known as a mailbox economy. Those who are fully retired bring those assets into a community and do not compete with the indigenous workforce for jobs. Those who are still working, even part-time have a different impact on the economy. Using all three definitions of migration, the researchers found that fewer partially retired people migrate to Florida than Texas and California, therefore having less impact on the workforce.

Implications for County FCS Faculty

County faculty are frequently involved in county-level community development and are responsible for the development of their own programs. Recognizing the differences in how migration is calculated provides faculty with important information to contribute to those planning processes. This study which utilized data from the U.S. Census reminds us of the wealth of information available from the census data. To find data related to many aspects of your county or community (i.e. age distribution, education levels, income, housing costs, etc.) follow this link to the American Community Survey and enter your city or county. In the past the census data was unusable to most professionals, but now census data is presented in a very user-friendly format and is therefore not only accessible it is also usable! Data presented in the American Community Survey reflects the issues of concern to FCS agents and can be very helpful in developing needs assessments, preparing situation statements for Plans of Work, and for prioritizing programs.

How Do I Know that a Product is Really Organic?

2007-01-29T08:07:00.000-05:00

Submitted by: Mickie Swisher, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Sustainable Agriculture
PDF Version

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) developed legal rules about organic foods that went into effect about three years ago. These rules are very detailed and carry a stiff fine -- $10,000 – for labeling any food product “organic” unless the USDA standards for organic production are met. The rules cover how the food was produced, how it was processed, and even how it is transported. Every organic food product sold in the United States, regardless of where it was produced, must meet USDA’s standards. Any use of the term “organic” to describe a food product requires meeting USDA standards.

What Are the Standards?

The standards are very detailed. They cover things like the cleaning materials that can be used on machinery, how to store and transport organic products to make sure they do not come into contact with conventionally produced items, and how to protect water quality. You can find a copy of the standards at http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/NOP/NOPhome.html.

What Should I Look For?

Every organic food product must have a certification label on it. This will be a small, usually inconspicuous, label that gives the name of the certifying agency and provides information about how to contact the certifier.

Here is an example:

The product may also carry the USDA Organic logo, but this is not required. More and more producers are using this logo because it is highly visible and more easily recognized by most consumers.

Private certifiers, or, in some cases, state departments of agriculture, not the USDA are responsible for certification. All of these certifiers are, however, accredited by the USDA. This means that the USDA has verified that the certifier follows all of the procedures that USDA requires for certification and that the certifier does know and understand the USDA standards for organic production, processing and transportation. You can find a complete list of the certifiers at http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/CertifyingAgents/Accredited.html. There are currently 95 certifying agencies for USDA, 50 domestic and 45 international.

What Does Certification Mean?

Any farm or company that produces an organic product must go through an inspection process. The farmer or producer applies for certification by filling out a lengthy application form that explains everything that he/she has done and will do to meet the national organic standards.

Let’s take a farm as an example. A farmer must have followed all of the rules and regulations for organic production for at least three years. The application indicates what the farmer has done in the past, and what he/she will do in the coming year. The farmer provides a new application for re-certification every year. If the farmer’s plan meets the requirements for certification, an inspector goes to the farm to make sure that the practices that the farmer said are being used actually are being used – and to make sure that there are no violations of any of the organic standards on the farm. If a farmer fails to meet the standards, decertification follows.

Can I Be Sure?

Consumers must look for the certification label on a product to make absolutely sure that it meets the USDA standards. If someone sells a product at a farmers’ market, they should have a copy of the certification documentation for you to see. It is true that farmers who sell less than $5,000 worth of products per year can use the term organic – as long as they meet all of the USDA standards – but do not have to be certified. Packaged products must have the certifier’s seal on them. While there is a stiff penalty for calling a product “organic” that does not meet USDA’s requirements, as is so often the case, the consumer must be vigilant and look for the seal. If you suspect that a product is being labeled organic that is not certified, you should contact the USDA and file a complaint. The contact information and procedure is available at http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/Compliance/FileComplaint.html.

Child Care for Children with Disabilities: The Importance of Parent Provider Partnerships

2007-01-29T08:06:00.000-05:00

Submitted by: Suzanna Smith, Ph.D., MSW, CFLE, Associate Professor, Human Development

PDF Version

DeVore, S. & Bowers, B. (2007). Childcare for children with disabilities. Infants & Young Children, 19(3), 203-212.

Working parents often face difficult choices about how to take care of their children when they are at work. They often search for the “right” childcare provider, someone who will meet their child’s needs, and someone they can afford, at a convenient location.

What about the difficulties that working parents of children with disabilities face? Finding childcare can be especially challenging for these families, because they need a provider that can accommodate their child’s special needs, in addition to being affordable and of good quality.

According to DeVore and Bowers (2006) in their recent study published in Infants and Young Children, “about 60% of mothers of children with disabilities are employed and need…childcare” (p. 203). In this exploratory study with a small sample of parents of children with disabilities and childcare providers, researchers looked closely at how families of children with disabilities find, choose, and maintain the childcare they need.

Methods

The researchers conducted in-depth interviews with 18 parents and 4 childcare providers who cared for children with disabilities. They located the sample through two resource and referral agencies and 2 early intervention programs. With grounded theory to guide the study, the researchers asked unstructured open-ended questions and then revised these questions based on what they were learning from the research. Interviews were audio taped and transcribed. Line by line dimensional analysis of the interviews brought out themes and enable comparisons. Summaries of results were mailed to participants and were clarified during follow-up interviews. A panel of researchers also coded and reviewed the transcripts and analyses to verify the results.

Results

All families selected for the study had at least one child age 6 or younger, with developmental delays and/or special healthcare needs such as such as autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, and speech delay. All families used from 20-45 hours of non-parental care per week in one or a combination of the following: center based childcare, family childcare in the child care provider’s home, care in a relative’s home, a preschool program at a school, in-home therapeutic services, or a nanny in the family’s home (p. 205). Most families lived in metropolitan areas in the county where the study was conducted

Like other working parents, these families first created a pool of providers based on professional and personal recommendations. When narrowing down their pool, they looked at practical factors such as cost, and group size. Then parents screened providers, usually over the phone, and followed up with a visit to childcare facilities they liked.

Parents were, as could be expected, looking for a provider “who could meet their child’s special developmental needs” (p. 208). Yet, while most families cycled through several different childcare arrangements, trying to find childcare that worked for them, a few found successful childcare situations the first time (p. 208). What made the difference? In lasting childcare arrangements, parents weren’t just looking for specialized care, but for a cooperative relationship with the childcare provider. Those parents and providers quickly built a partnership and worked together to solve problems. These partnering parents and providers were lucky in other ways, too—the parents had flexible work schedules, a supportive adult living with them, and a second income so they could take the time to find the right provider and resolve issues that might arise. Families that were less successful “were often under time pressures to find care,” had financial limitations, and “felt somewhat isolated” (p. 210).

Conclusions

The study found that partnerships between parents and childcare providers were an important factor in successful childcare arrangements for children with disabilities. They also point out that families need specific resources to manage their searches including “time, adults support, and economic stability” (p. 210). Having access to these resources enabled families to take the time to find successful childcare. The researchers recommend that families contact childcare information and referral services for individualized help in locating the kind of care the family needs and other resources in the community that can help.

Implications for Extension

Extension can work with childcare resource and referral agencies, early intervention specialists, and providers to offer training on improving parent-provider communication and developing partnerships for caring for children with disabilities. In parent education programs, Extension faculty can encourage parents of children with disabilities to develop a system for identifying potential childcare providers; and for finding a provider the family can talk with openly, and who is willing to work with parents to solve problems. Extension can work with childcare resource and referral agencies, children’s coalitions, and policy makers, to bring to light the childcare needs of children with disabilities.

Want to know more about childcare for children with disabilities? Sign up for session 25 at the May Extension symposium, Building Quality Child Care in Florida. For more information, contact Heidi Radunovich

Do Couples at High Risk of Relationship Problems Attend Premarriage Education?

2007-01-29T08:05:00.000-05:00

Submitted by: Heidi Liss Radunovich, PhD, Assistant Professor of Human Development

PDF Version

Halford, W.K., O’Donnell, C., Lizzio, A., & Wilson, K.L. (2006). Do couples at high risk of relationship problems attend premarriage education? [Electronic version] Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 160-163.

Introduction

Although studies suggest that most couples benefit from premarital education, the research literature suggests that couples who are at risk for marital problems are the ones who benefit most from premarital education. However, are those who are at higher risk for marital problems likely to obtain premarital education? This study examined whether factors associated with higher risk for divorce had an impact on whether or not couples obtained premarital education.

Methodology

This study was conducted in Australia. In order to recruit participants, all newly married couples within an Australian state were contacted 6 weeks after marriage if they were married within 3 randomly selected months over the course of about a year and a half. A total of 6,656 couples were married during that time frame, and were contacted regarding the study. Of those couples, only 447 couples volunteered to participate in the study.

A total of 384 couples completed all study procedures. Income and education of this sample were slightly higher than for the general population of Australia, but slightly lower than would be expected for a United States population. Participants completed a battery of measures that asked about demographic information, whether or not any type of premarital education was received, and specific measures of relationship adjustment and aggression.

Main Ideas

The two variables that consistently predicted attendance at marriage education were religious service attendance and not living together prior to marriage. Living together before marriage has been associated with poorer marital outcome, and religious attendance has been associated with better marital outcome. Level of education, age, history of parental divorce, having a prior marriage, aggression in the relationship, and stability of the relationship did not predict attendance at premarital education. Overall, the data suggests that those couples with higher risk factors for divorce were less likely to attend premarital education than those with lower risk factors. It is important to keep in mind that this study was conducted in a different country ( Australia), and that those couples who volunteered to participate in this study (only about 6% of the total number eligible) might be somewhat different from the general population. However, it is notable that, similar to the US, Australia does not provide free, easy access to premarital education. Therefore, it is understandable that many of those who received premarital education likely did so through their religious institution, and may have been required to do so in order to get married by their religious institution. Interestingly, the researchers did not comment on the types of premarital education used, nor do they describe the length or type of education available.

Implications for Extension Programs

The State of Florida provides an incentive for premarital education by providing a discount in the cost of the marriage license to those Florida couples who receive premarital education. However, this does not mean that premarital education is widely available at a low cost. Cooperative Extension within the state of Florida provides the Before You Tie the Knot premarital education program at low or no cost, but this program is only available in a few select counties. Furthermore, it is unclear whether those most at risk would participate in such a program, even when offered at free or reduced cost. Although it would be helpful to increase the availability of the Before You Tie the Knot program to other counties, perhaps efforts should be made to increase the availability of the program information via multiple formats (in person, virtual, self-taught via written materials or video) so that those who can’t easily attend a premarital program in person, or who would feel uncomfortable doing so, could receive premarital education through alternative methods. Finally, tailoring the materials to meet the need of various types of couples, including those from other cultures and with various levels of literacy, would help reach a wider audience (Ooms & Wilson, 2004).

Conclusion

Quality premarital education has been associated with improved marital satisfaction (Jakubowski, Milne, Brunner & Miller, 2004). However, those couples who may benefit most from premarital education may be less likely to receive premarital education. Attempts to increase availability through traditional as well as alternative methods would be beneficial.

Additional References

Jakubowski, S.F., Milne, E.P., Brunner, H., & Miller, R.B. (2004). A review of empirically supported marital enrichment programs [Electronic version]. Family Relations, 53, 528-536.

Ooms, T., & Wilson, P. (2004). The challenges of offering relationship and marriage education to low-income populations [Electronic version]. Family Relations, 53, 440-447.

Peacock, D., & Radunovich, H. (2006). So You Are Getting Married in Florida! EDIS publication FCS 2179.

Is Your Home Safe For Your Children?

2007-01-29T08:04:00.001-05:00

Submitted by: Hyun-Jeong Lee, Ph.D., Assistant Professor/Housing Specialist
PDF Version

Phelan, K. J., J. Khoury, H. Kalkwarf, and B. Lanphear. January-February 2005. “Residential Injuries in U.S. Children and Adolescents.” Public Health Reports 120: 63-70.

Introduction

A house is the primary built-environment for a human being (Aragonés 2002). A house plays important roles to those who reside there not only as a shelter providing security and protection from harm (Aragonés; Betchel 1997). However, is your home safe enough for you and your children? One of the recent reports indicates that the leading cause of the U.S. children’s death is injury and the home is the most common place for the children’s injuries (Phelan, Khoury, Kalkwarf & Lanphear 2005).

Methodology

The purpose of the study by Phelan et al. (2005) was to investigate the trends of unintentional residential injury for U.S. children. Data was obtained from the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics. From the NHAMCS data, a sample of patients under age 20 at the time of survey who visited to emergency departments (EDs) between 1993 and 1999 were drawn and analyzed using statistical techniques including chi-square tests.

Main Ideas

Children’s Injuries between 1993 and 1999

From 1993 to 1999, average 29 million children < 20 years visited EDs annually. Injury accounted 39% of the children emergency visits and 35% of the total children emergency visits were reported as unintentional injury visits. The home was found to be the most common location of the unintentional child injury, accounting for 4 million ED visit annually. Fortunately, the number of the children’s ED visits for unintentional injuries decreased by 24% from 4.7 millions in 1993 to 3.5 millions in 1999. However, the number is still high. Children age under 5 showed the greatest number (1.7 millions) and highest rate (43%) of ED visits for unintentional residential injuries. Males showed a higher rate of the ED visits than females.

Mechanism, Type, and Severity of the Children Residential Injuries

Among the children’s ED visits due to any residential injuries, falls were found to be the most frequent mechanism, accounting for 38% of the visits. “Struck/strike” and “cutting/piercing” were the second and third frequent mechanism of the ED visits.

The most commonly injured regions of the body from residential injuries were extremities, head and necks. The most frequent types of injury were an open wound or superficial injury, contusions/crush injuries and fracture/dislocation (Phelan et al., p.66). More than 10% of the annual children ED visits were for “moderate-to-severe” injuries (Phelan et al., p.67).

Suggestions for the Residential Injury Prevention

The researchers of the study suggested that many of the children’s injuries at home can be prevented by using safety devices such as stairway gates, improving home design, and by providing appropriate parental supervision (p.67). In addition, it was suggested that safety of home products needs to be ensured.

Implications for Extension Programs

Considering young children (age under 5) showed the highest rate of the children’s ED visits, safety education needs to be emphasized in education programs of parents of the young children and prospective parents. Also, home remodeling/modification programs and education materials need to include safety features and products related to children’s in- and around-home safety. In addition, consumer education needs to be focused on appropriate purchase, installation and use of home products.

Conclusion

Traditionally, the main image of a home includes a shelter providing protection from outside harms. However, a recent research study by Phelan et al. (2005) revealed that home was a not-so-safe place for the U.S. children. Although the number of children residential injuries was found to be decreased over the years, home is still the most common location for the children injuries in the United States. More attention and efforts are required to make your home a safer place for you and your children to live.

Additional References

Aragonés, J. I. 2002. The Dwelling as Place: Behaviors and Symbolism. In Residential Environments: Choice, Satisfaction and Behavior, edited by J. I. Aragones and T. Gärling. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

Bechtel, R. B. 1997. Environment and Behavior: An Introduction. Edited by Robert B. Bechtel. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

The Protective Role of Grandparents

2007-01-29T08:03:00.000-05:00

Submitted by: Kate Fogarty, Ph.D., Youth Development
PDF Version

Introduction

The role grandparents play in children’s development is an increasingly recognized phenomenon in the U.S., as well as other developed nations. For example, nearly 6% of children reside in homes where grandparents are the head of household (U.S. Census, 2001) and there has been a recent, steep increase in grandparents serving as surrogate parents to their grandchildren (Fuller-Thomson & Minkler, 2000). The increase is attributed to a number of dire conditions affecting parents/children of grandparents such as: (1) death, divorce, child abuse, drug use and incarceration (Edwards &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Daire, 2006); and (2) grandparents are the most willing of any family member to take grandchildren into their home (Edwards, 1998).

Beyond the influence, grandparents have on their grandchildren while they raise them – such as academic success and psychological well-being (Edwards, 2003) – grandparents also affect grandchildren even when they do not live under the same roof. When children face high risk situations such as poverty and parental mental illness, grandparents can make a difference by positively affecting a child’s development. Notably, recent findings support how grandparents buffer the negative effects of high risk on children. High risk settings that include: poverty, parental mental illness, and stressful family events are found to be correlates and causes of maternal depression (Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006). Maternal depression has notable negative effects on parenting and children’s functioning, effects which have been found to be lessened by grandchildren’s sense of emotional closeness to their grandparents.

Maternal Depression and Family Relationships

Maternal depression affects children through family relationships by how parents and children interact with one another (Davies &amp;amp;amp;amp;amp; Windle, 1997; Nelson, Hammen, Brennan, & Ullman, 2003). Compared to nondepressed mothers, depressed mothers are found to respond:

minimally or inconsistently with their children;
express more negative emotions with their children; and
are less engaged when interacting with their children (Petterson & Albers, 2001). Like poverty, maternal depression:
inhibits children’s cognitive development (Petterson & Albers, 2001);
worsens their behavior problems (Elgar, Curtis, McGrath, Waschbusch, & Stewart, 2003; Zuckerman & Beardslee, 1987);
influences teens’ acting out behaviors and impairs their functioning in social and academic roles (Nelson, et al., 2003).

Depressive symptoms reported by mothers are associated with adolescent daughters’ (but not sons’) experiences with depression, behavioral problems, and academic difficulties (Davies & Windle, 1997). Mothers’ reports of depression when children are school-aged and adolescents had negative effects on psychological functioning and educational attainment for adult sons and daughters (Ensminger, Hanson, Riley, & Juon, 2003). Moreover, mother’s depression when children were school-aged to young adult was significantly related to children’s reports of depression in young adulthood (Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006). Similar to the timing effects found with poverty, the longer a period of time a child experiences maternal depression, the more negative developmental effects result (Petterson & Albers, 2001).

Maternal depression has clearly been established as a risk factor for poor child, adolescent, and young adult (e.g., developmental) outcomes. For example, a national, representative longitudinal study has found that being (Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006):

female;
unmarried vs. married and cohabiting;
cohabiting vs. married;
depressed in childhood; and
having a depressed mother as a child, each increased the likelihood that children would be depressed as young adults.

Grandparent(s) as Protective Factor

However, this same study shows that a child’s relationship with his or her grandparent(s) is a source of protection or a protective factor. For example, a grandchild’s:

sense of emotional closeness to their grandparent(s);
frequency of contact with grandparent(s); and
view of their grandparent(s) as a source of social support, together buffer the “intergenerational effect” of maternal depression on children (Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006).

In other words, for children with depressed mothers, the higher a child’s sense of “social cohesion” with their grandparent(s), measured by the above three factors, the less likely he or she is to experience depression in adulthood. Or, among all children, the link between depressive symptoms of mothers and children was found to be weakened by the presence of strong grandparent-grandchild relationships.

Notable protective factors pinpointed in resilience research include: availability of community support networks, the presence of caring adults, possession of high intelligence, and having high self-esteem; these protective factors have caught the attention of youth interventionists and prevention researchers. Decreasing the influence of risk factors and increasing or providing the presence of protection in the lives of at-risk youth is a main goal of intervention. There is logic in targeting those protective factors found in youth development research as part of treatment and prevention for youth at risk (Wolkow & Ferguson, 2001); however, setbacks occur due to limited knowledge of how to influence underlying processes that buffer risk and stress in the lives of youth (Rutter, 1993).

In light of these recent findings of the protective function of grandparents on youth outcomes, Extension educators can (adapted from Silverstein & Ruiz, 2006):

Consider ways to mobilize family resources toward the extended, and beyond the nuclear, family;
Emphasize the importance of intergenerational relationships in families;
Incorporate ways for intergenerational family participation in programs;
Encourage the volunteerism of older adults in the community (e.g., as “surrogate” grandparents to individual youth or youth programs); and
Make use of multigenerational resources in their programs.

References

Davies, P.T., & Windle, M. (1997). Gender-specific pathways between maternal depressive symptoms, family discord, and adolescent adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 33, 657-668.

Edwards, O.W. & Daire, A.P. (2006). School-age children raised by their grandparents: Problems and solutions. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 33, 113-119.

Edwards, O.W. (1998). Helping grandchildren raised by grandparents: Expanding psychology in the schools. Psychology in the Schools, 35, 173-181.

Edwards, O.W. (2003). Living with grandma: A grandfamily study. School Psychology International, 24, 204-217.

Elgar, F.J., Curtis, L.J., McGrath, P.J., Waschbusch, D.A., & Stewart, S.H. (2003). Antecedent-consequence conditions in maternal mood and child adjustment: A four-year cross-lagged study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 362-374.

Ensminger, M.E., Hanson, S.G., Riley, A. W., & Juon, H.S. (2003). Maternal psychological distress: Adult sons’ and daughters’ mental health and educational attainment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1108-1115.

Fuller-Thomson, E., & Minkler, M. (2000). America’s grandparent caregivers: Who are they? In B. Hayslip Jr. & R. Goldberg-Glen (Eds.), Grandparents raising grandchildren: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical perspectives (pp. 3-21). New York, NY: Springer.

Nelson, D.R., Hammen, C., Brennan, P.A., & Ullman, J.B. (2003). The impact of maternal depression on adolescent adjustment: The role of expressed emotion. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 935-944.

Petterson, S.M. & Albers, A.B. (2001). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early child development. Child Development, 72, 1974-1813.

Rutter, M. (1993). Resilience: Some conceptual considerations. Journal of Adolescent Health, 14, 626-631.

Silverstein, M., & Ruiz, S. (2006). Breaking the chain: How grandparents moderate the transmission of maternal depression to their grandchildren. Family Relations, 55, 601-612.

United States Census Bureau. (2001). Census 2000 Supplementary Survey: Profile of selected social characteristics.

Wolkow, K.E., & Ferguson, H.B. (2001). Community factors in the development of resiliency: Considerations and future directions. Community Mental Health Journal, 37, 489-498.

Zuckerman, B.S., & Beardslee, W.R. (1987). Maternal depression: A concern for pediatricians. Pediatrics, 79, 110-117.

Frictionless Fundraising: How the Internet can Bring Fundraising Back into Balance.

2007-01-29T08:02:00.000-05:00

Submitted by: E.B. Bolton, Ph.D., Professor, Community Development
PDF version

Frictionless Fundraising: How the Internet can Bring Fundraising back into Balance. Michael C. Gilbert, January, 2003. Nonprofit Online News is a program of The Gilbert Center at http://news.gilbert.org.

Michael Gilbert reaches the nonprofit community with his electronic newsletter containing articles, workshop opportunities and solicitations for his organization. This article seemed particularly appropriate for faculty involved with community based organizations working on fund raising campaigns. It emphasizes a back-to-basics approach that combines technology with the four elements of professional fund raising.

Gilbert starts with the caution that it is inappropriate to start with explaining the technology but to begin with defining fundraising. He uses a mapping concept as a four part diagram that depicts a series of stages of communication with a potential donor. The map beings with moving the donor through the first stage called “prospecting” which is the act of “initiating a relationship with a prospective donor.” (p. 2). This stage includes marketing and promotion. “Cultivating” follows the prospect stage and here the relationship is developed with the donor so that the appeal might have a better chance to be successful. “Asking” follows the cultivate stage and this is the formal request for a donation. “Stewardship” is the process of nurturing the relationship with the prospect or the donor over time.

Gilbert’s point is that modern fundraising is not working as well as we are led to believe, i.e. it is out of balance. Fundraising for most organizations involves costly communications with donors which creates an environment that is in a state of constant friction. He says that the communication stages are out of alignment because the emphasis in on the “ask” part of the equation. Most fund raisers are obsessed with the asking part of the equation and give very little attention to the other three parts, particularly the processes of cultivation and stewardship. The “ask” becomes increasing urgent with every new campaign and it increases as the goals get higher. Only the major donors have a balanced relationship with the organization because they are treated with respect. All other donors are treated as sources of money. Balanced means that the four parts of the equation are equal although not necessarily the same with all donors.

Accepting credit card transactions is a great way to increase online fundraising but it does little to give balance to the four-part fund raising equation. Gilbert says that the capability to raise funds through the internet could be limiting to the organization because it gives little attention to the donor’s need for cultivation and continued stewardship and therein lies the danger of relying exclusively on technology as a fund raising. Letting technology drive the fund raising effort put an emphasis on the capabilities of technology and ignores the human aspects of the organization primarily the donors and the staff who deal with them. Gilbert notes this emphasis shifts the fundraising to technology support staff and away from the fund raising professionals.

He makes the point that credit card transactions are not fundraising and the perception that they are creates an imbalance by combining the worst aspect of fundraising with available technology. This approach will raise funds but because of the scale of unsolicited email, it also has the potential of creating spam and throwing the fund raising equation further out of balance. The use of internet technology is the direction many nonprofit are going rather than creating a system of communication with their stakeholders that goes far beyond receiving an email solicitation. Gilbert says this is the philosophy of a quick return on the dollar similar to that of direct mail campaigns. Both of these practices will be detrimental to the organization because it erodes goodwill of the public and prevent online fundraising from being successful to the extent it might be otherwise.

The potential exists, according to Gilbert, to treat every donor like a major donor. “Prospect” them with respect and permission. “Cultivate” them in a personal way. “Ask” for the right amount at the right time. “Steward” the relationship in such a way that loyalty from the donor is created and lasts for a long time. This balanced equation decreases two costs, communication and personalization. He proposes the integration of email, the web, and selected databases will reduce the cost to reach potential donors. The nonprofit incurs the cost of email, web sites and building databases. The donor will supply the stewardship to sustain the relationship through email and web site visits. He says this plan maintains the four stages of the fund raising equation and reduces the friction of fundraising by restoring equilibrium to the process.

No longer will “prospecting” be on just new donors. The emphasis will be on developing lists of donors that have been approached with respect and permission. This will be done through a process called “chaperoning” rather than renting email lists. Nonprofits will “cultivate” these relationships by redesigning websites and the messages they send out so that it is not campaign on fundraising but on developing relationships. The “ask” becomes much easier because the prospecting and cultivation stage has been carefully crafted and carried out. All this work will be rewarded as the nonprofit develops and maintains a stewardship approach to the donors. Funding solicitations will not be combined with news about events or birthday greetings. From this process it will be learned how the donors want the nonprofit to be stewards of their donations.

Gilbert says nonprofits need to get back to basic theory of successful fundraising that does not lose sight of the human element. Technology is a wonderful tool but it should be used effectively to create communications with real people on the other end. In that way it will seem frictionless because all the elements in the equation are balanced and operate in harmony. Relationships are the most important part of fund raising and technology will not replace these but if used appropriately and effectively it will enhance nonprofit donor relationships.