The Online Film School

Symbolism in Movies

2008-07-02T17:41:00.003-04:00

Symbols are often the primary method of layering an artistic message in a movie. The director may want to make a point without it being blatantly obvious, so they'll usually use symbols to encourage the audience to look deeper and think more about the message and its meaning. This post will explain different types of symbols and how to use them effectively.

A symbol is an object that represents something else. It can be anything as long as it somehow relates to the theme of the movie and causes a character to have a change of attitude and see a situation in a different light.

There are two types of symbols:
Universal/Natural Symbols: These are symbols that tend to be felt naturally by many people regardless of the situation. Ex. The flag of one's country can evoke feelings of pride and nationalism while circling buzzards are often a sign that someone or something is about to die.

Conditioned Symbols: Other symbols need to be assigned meanings so that a conditioned response is felt. The filmmaker needs to work much harder to ensure these symbols are experienced by the audience. Ex. The Seventh Seal and All That Jazz used the grim reaper and a seductive woman to symbolize death.

Methods to Create Symbolic Meanings
1. Repetition: Showing the symbol often will ensure that the audience takes notice of it.
2. Place Value on an Object: Value should be sentimental, not monetary.
3. Context: Take into account the symbol's relationship to other visual objects and their importance in the film's structure.
4. Visual, Aural, or Musical Emphasis: You can use audio or visual effects to put emphasis on the symbol.

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Basic Editing Principles and Procedures

2008-06-20T01:16:00.003-04:00

Editors seldom get the credit they deserve mainly because it can be hard to appreciate their work until you try doing it yourself. They can extract numerous different types of feelings and emotions from the same footage just by cutting it differently. This post will introduce you to some of the techniques editors use and how/why they use them.

There are three units of editing: The shot, scene, and sequence. The shot is one segment of footage from a single camera (there is no cutting between other angles). The scene is made up of multiple shots from the same setting/location. Sequences are made up of multiple scenes being put back to back. It's these multiple sequences that make up the structure of the movie.

Here's a list of five things you should keep in mind when editing:

1. Selectivity: It's the editor's job to sort through all the printed takes and choose the best ones. This ensures that the best performances are used and that the flow of the scenes is as good as possible. Also take note of the camera angle, shot composition/framing, and lighting of each shot to make sure they're as good as possible.

2. Coherence, Continuity, and Rhythm: Paying attention to these three things will ensure that the end result makes sense. It often involves watching smaller things that aren't always immediately noticeable (continuity of background objects and characters positions for example).

3. Transitions: Fade ins and outs are typically used to show that a scene is starting or finishing. Dissolves between scenes are often used to show the passing of time. A J cut is when the audio of the current shot is heard while the video of the current shot is shown. An L cut is when the audio of the current shot is heard while the image of the next shot is shown. L and J cuts are most often used during conversations.

4. Rhythms, Tempos, and Time Control: Always think about how many cuts you're using and how fast they're happening. If there's an action scene you'll most likely want more, faster cuts while if you're editing a dramatic scene you'll probably want fewer, slower cuts.

5. Expansion and Compression of Time: Editors can use montages to show a series of events that led to a current situation in a much shorter period of time than it would take to show those events in their entirety. Montages are effective for scenes where a character is remembering something from their past. Jump cuts are another effective way to compress time by showing what many different characters who aren't in the same location as each other are doing.

The Rule of Six (The most important things to think about when making an edit)
From Walter Murch's In The Blink of an Eye
1. Emotion
2. Story
3. Rhythm
4. Eye-trace
5. Planarity
6. Spatial Continuity

"What audiences finally remember is not the editing, not the camerawork, not the performances, not even the story - it's how they felt." - Walter Murch

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Approaches to Film Analysis

2008-06-04T19:25:00.003-04:00

Most people think anyone can be a film critic without knowing how much thought most of them put into their reviews. They also tend to wonder why so many films get such low ratings. It's simple, because real critics don't just watch movies, they study them. Here are some questions, suggestions, and methods for analyzing a film.

1. The Film as a Technical Achievement
- What inventive techniques were used?
- Emphasis on how the director communicates.

2. The Film as a Showcase for the Actor
- Emphasis on performance.
- What personality traits or acting skills are featured?

3. The Film as the Product of an "Auteur"
- Emphasis on the artistic vision and philosophy of the filmmaker as a creative personality.
- Special attention is paid to the story, cast, camera, lighting, editing, and score.
- How does each element in the film reflect the director's artistic vision and philosophy?

4. The Film as a Moral or Social Statement
- Emphasis on the "humanistic significance" of the film beyond its imaginative context.
- What is the message of the film?
- Is it universal or restricted to a certain time or place?

5. The Film as an Emotional/Sensual Experience
- Emphasis on producing a gut-level experience (thrills, fears, tears, laughs, etc.)
- What elements in the film contribute mostly to the emotional experience?

6. The Film as a Conventional Genre
- Emphasis on familiar "formula" films (western, horror, adventure, etc.)
- How does the film fulfill our expectations?
- What variations and innovations are introduced to satisfy our need for novelty?
- What basic beliefs, values, and myths are reflected? Are they outdated?

7. The Film as a Political Statement (Marxist Approach)
- Emphasis on the film as reflecting the power struggle (between economic classes) that lies beneath the story.
- What is the socioeconomic level of the character and how is it revealed (dialog, costume, setting, etc.)?
- How do the various social classes interact?
- What happens when a character crosses over?

8. The Film as an Insight Into the Mind (Freudian Approach)
- Emphasis on the film as a dream providing insights into the filmmaker's subconscious mind.
- What is the underlying meaning of the film beneath the surface?
- What Freudian concepts are being suggested (Oedipus complex, libido/sexual drive, super ego, etc.)?
- What other symbols do you find in the film?

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Basic Elements in Film Analysis

2008-06-04T18:22:00.004-04:00

To truly understand a movie beyond knowing the story and if you liked it or not, you need to be able to answer a few questions. Being able to effectively analyze a movie will set you apart from the general public and possibly put you on a path to being the next Rogert Ebert. Here are some questions you should be able to answer at the end of each movie to ensure you understood it.

Theme and Filmmaker's Intention
- What is the subject or unifying central concern?
- What statement is the film making about the subject?

Objective Evaluation
- Which sections make the strongest contribution to the theme? Why?
- Which sections fail to function effectively? Why?

Subjective Evaluation
- What is your personal gut level reaction?
- What are your reasons for liking or disliking the movie?

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Story Themes

2008-06-04T14:11:00.003-04:00

If you look past the main storyline of any movie you will always find a deeper theme that makes up its dramatic formula. It's these formulas that make up the story structure of every type of movie there is. Here's a list of common themes and how they're defined.

Intrapersonal Anguish
Dramatic Emphasis
- Self-Revelation
- Dialog Scenes
- Interior Monologues

Physical World
- Confused/Cluttered

Character Types
- Tormented by self-doubt
- Depressive/Despairing

Interpersonal Conflict
Dramatic Emphasis
- Passionate relationships
- Emotionally-charged events

Physical World
- Box-like, limited, inescapable

Character Types
- Frail and vulnerable
- Hopeful
- Most true-to-life

Comedy
Dramatic Emphasis
- Bewilderment, surprise
- Adults acting like kids

Physical World
- Unfamiliar/Intimidating
- Exaggerated

Character Types
- Innocent
- Buoyant
- Hopeful

Fairy Tale
Dramatic Emphasis
- Release from bondage
- Captors to other characters
- Discover a means of liberation

Physical World
- Confining/Restrictive
- Sinking ship, primitive island
- Object/action symbolism

Character Types
- Sharply defined "good" and "bad"
- Fairy godmother provides escape

Personal Quest
Dramatic Emphasis
- Achieving a goal

Physical World
- Imposed confinement (prison, military, etc.)

Character Types
- Searching for truth
- Achieving integrity
- Perseverance

Detective Genre
Dramatic Emphasis
- Righting a wrong
- Restoration of order

Physical World
- Urban jungle
- Corrupt officials
- Decay
- Shadowy

Character Types
- Smart, witty, ambivalent
- Code of honor
- Truth seeker
- Good guy or bad guy

Horror Genre
Dramatic Emphasis
- Raw Fear
- Terror of a monster (human or otherwise)
- Escape of the victim

Physical World
- Distorted
- Maze of corridors
- World isolated from outside help

Character Types
- Resourceful
- Battling over something

Thriller Genre
Dramatic Emphasis
- Staying alive and out of harm's way
- Life or death battle

Physical World
- Isolated from help
- Familiar people and places seem threatening

Character Types
- Innocent
- Drawn into intrigue
- Stay alive through self-reliance

Action/Adventure
Dramatic Emphasis
- Ready to die for an ideal/code/value

Physical World
- Exaggerated environment
- Physical action

Character Types
- High moral order
- Up against equally motivated antagonists

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Elements of a Genre: The Gangster Movie

2008-06-04T00:25:00.003-04:00

Traditional gangster movies haven't been as popular since the days when The Godfather trilogy was dominating the genre (and movies as a whole), but that's not to say you couldn't write the gangster flick to top them all. Here are some things you'll need to know to get started.

Setting
The mean streets of an urban jungle or in a small town in the character's home country (often Italy).

Characters
Gangster Hero: A brutally aggressive and ambitious man who typically has a high level of cockiness and arrogance to him. He usually puts his family ahead of everything else and won't tolerate anyone who messes with any of its members.

Henchmen: There are three main types of gangster henchmen: The confession specialist (claims he can make anyone talk), the endlessly loyal one, and the traitor (who often sells out to a rival gang or the police).

Women: Like henchmen, there are three main types of women: The sexual ornaments (cheap, mindless, and greedy), the independent intelligent woman (often gets information from a rival), and the family member (mothers are respected while sisters need to be protected).

Conventions
The Rise and Fall Scenario: An upstart gang member rises to power but makes a tragic mistake that causes his downfall. Redemption is often offered but is refused due to pride.

Death in a Gutter: Often goes hand-in-hand with the rise and fall scenario. A once honorable character dies an extremely dishonorable death.

Car Chase: These certainly aren't gangster movie-exclusive but the tommy guns used in them are. A drive by with pistols may work for today's gangsters, but nothing less than a machine gun was accepted by the mafia.

Overdressed Hero: Double breasted suits and luxurious bath robes are the threads of choice for any respectable member of the mob. Dressing to impress not only shows wealth but also gives the wearer a feeling of power and respect.

Conflict
Anarchy of Gangsters vs. Social Order: Gangsters aren't satisfied with normal day jobs or following many other social norms. They often need to come up with more "creative" ways to make a living.

Cops vs. Robbers: If the gangsters aren't shooting at rival gang members, they're shooting at the cops. It's not unusual for the chief of police to have his job riding on the successful capture of the mafia leader.

Internal Conflict Within the Hero: The protagonist isn't always a bloodthirsty maniac, there are times when he'll only result to violence as a last resort or in an act of revenge. The concern of having his children think of him as a murderer can weigh heavy on a mob boss' mind and cause him to reconsider his position within the mafia.

Values Affirmed
Justice Prevails/Good Conquers Evil/Crime Doesn't Pay: The mafia boss usually has a tragic downfall because he either got greedy or in too far over his head with enemies.

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Elements of a Genre: The Western

2008-06-02T17:16:00.004-04:00

What makes a good Western movie? Obviously you've gotta' have a good hero and a good villain but there's a little more to it than just that. The setting, character backgrounds, and the conflicts need to fit within certain parameters to make the movie truly effective. Here are all the things you'll need to know to make the next classic western.

Setting
The American West from 1865-1900. There really isn't much variation in this department

Characters
The Hero: The hero is typically a rugged individualist from the frontier. They're often courageous loners with personal codes of dignity, courage, justice, equality, and respect for women. While it is possible for them to have ties to the community, it's rare for them to have a job or family. They often focus on making the lives of others better.

The Heroine: There's typically three types of strong female protagonists: The southern belle, the struggling ranch girl, and the tough/independent tomboy. However it's uncommon for a female to be the lead role in a Western due to the time frame they take place in (when women were more dependent on men to take care of any rough stuff).

The Villain: There are two main types of western villains: The untamed and uncivilized outlaw/savage and the respectable and civilized but corrupt banker or sheriff. The villains are typically strong leaders since they usually require henchmen or accomplices to carry out their plans.

Necessary Actions: In order for a movie to truly be a western it has to have a bar room brawl, a chase on horseback, and/or a climatic shootout of some type. When was the last time you saw a western without at least one of these things in it?

Conflict: Some part of society is either threatened by internal forces of corruption and greed or by external forces of uncivilized outlaws.

Values: Justice always prevails and law and order are restored to society.

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Types of Non-Primary Characters

2008-05-30T20:45:00.002-04:00

Very seldom does a script exist with just a protagonist and antagonist without any supporting characters. It's important to know how to write good non-primary characters vs. a bunch of main characters with smaller roles. Here are some definitions of different types of supporting characters.

Stock Characters: Predictable characters that an audience expects to see in certain locations. Ex. Bank tellers in a bank, waiters in a restaurant, etc.

Stereotypes: The audience's preconceived notions about this type of character leads them to believe things about them before any actual proof is given.

Static Characters: The personalities of these characters don't change regardless of what goes on around them or what situations they're in.

Dynamic Characters: Their attitudes and personalities are drastically altered by the events they live through.

Flat or Two-Dimensional Characters: Characters who seem too predictable to be real. They lack a strong personality and any internal complexity.

Round or Multi-Dimensional Characters: Unpredictable characters with numerous unique traits that aren't always immediately noticed. They're far more complex than 2D characters and as a result aren't as easy to categorize.

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Characterization

2008-05-29T00:12:00.005-04:00

An important part of writing a script is knowing the difference between your character's true character and their characterization: The difference between who they really are and who they try to be or are perceived to be. Sometimes the two are the same, but in many situations they won't be. This article will help you learn how different character traits are used effectively.

Before we can figure out different ways of defining characters, we need to establish the differences between Characterization and True Character.

Characterization: All observable qualities that anyone who didn't know the character could notice (ie. Appearance, occupation, dialect, etc.)

True Character: Their personality/who they really are, not just who they might pretend to be.

There are eight traditional ways to characterize someone. A good character will provide the audience with ample insight into each of the following categories:

Appearance: Assumptions people make based on appearance (their physical build, how they dress, how they present themselves, etc.)

Dialog: How the character portrays themselves through speech (word choice, tone, pitch, etc.)

External Action: A character's actions that result from their personality.

Internal Action: Thoughts, dreams, and aspirations a character has that they don't reveal to anyone else.

Reactions of Other Characters: Reactions, comments, and behaviors that secondary characters have in response to the primary character.

Dramatic Foils: Characters who contrast each other in their traits and lifestyles; Often leads to conflict.

Leitmotif: The catchphrase that results from a character repeating a phrase or idea until it becomes their trademark.

Name Typing: The feelings that names with certain sounds give (ie. Evil sounding names for villains, simple names for rural characters, etc.)

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List of Basic Materials

2008-05-20T17:14:00.003-04:00

If you're looking for an on-set position and aren't well-connected in the industry, odds are you're either going to be a PA, Grip, or Gaffer. Since PA's don't need much more than a driver's license and a lot of patience, here's a list of things all Grips and Gaffers should have with them on set.

Clothes Pegs - These can be useful for putting gels on lights if the barn doors aren't equipped with clips.

Outlet Tester - For checking the voltage of an outlet prior to plugging in a light. You need to be sure that the outlet can give the amount of power the light needs to avoid blowing a fuse.

Gels - You most likely won't need your own on a larger set, but they're always useful on a small set.

Multi-Tool - It should at least have pliers and a few different types of screwdrivers in it.

Electrical Tape - Important to have in the event a cable or cord is damaged and can't be replaced.

Gaffer's Tape (Various colors and widths) - Gaffer's tape to you is what duct tape is to most handymen. Those of you from Canada, Russia, or Sweden might recognize it as hockey tape, and it's indeed very similar in texture. The different colors are for marking multiple actors' starting and ending positions.

Work Gloves - Getting burned by a hot light sucks.

Cordless Drill - Be sure to have at least one of these around if you're going to be building sets.

Power Bar - You don't want to use one of these for lights but rather for charging batteries and powering monitors.

Foam Core - Excellent for bouncing fill light onto a subject.

Exposed Tape - This is usually handled by the camera assistants but it never hurts for other people to have some. It's basically tape that has "EXPOSED" written on it over and over. It's used to wrap the cans of exposed film to prevent people from opening them.

Small LED Flashlight - Should be a suitable size for keeping in a tool belt. LED's provide an even light and are good on batteries.

Light Meter - It's always best to have your own so you don't need to track down someone else's.

Socket Adapters - For when your lights don't fit in a building's outlets.

Tool Belt - To hold all of this stuff!

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Shot Angles

2008-05-16T18:37:00.003-04:00

A good way to improve your movies is to not only pay attention to the framing of your shots, but by carefully choosing the angles you use. Not every shot needs to be perfectly straight at the character from their eye level. There are all sorts of angles you can use to emphasize the feeling and emotion of the scene. Here's a list of different angles and how they're used.

Low-Angle Shot
The camera is positioned below the subject, angled up towards them. This can make the subject look bigger, but more importantly it makes them seem more menacing and intimidating.

High-Angle Shot
The opposite of the low-angle shot. The camera is positioned above the subject and is pointed down at them. This makes the subject seem smaller and frightened/intimidated (if an opposing character is being shot with a low-angle shot).

Eye-Level Shot
The camera lens is positioned within a couple inches of the subject's eye level. Eye-level shots are similar to medium shots because they represent someone's point of view. They put the viewer at the same level as the subject and don't have an extreme effect like a high or low-angle shot.

Bird's-Eye View
The bird's-eye view (or overhead shot) takes the high-angle shot to the next level. It's used to give a god-like view and makes anything on the ground seem insignificant because there's so much else in the shot. Since it's such an extreme shot, the bird's-eye view is used sparingly.

Oblique Shot
Sometimes called a Dutch Angle, an oblique shot is performed by tilting the camera to the side so the shot is no longer level/straight. This angle is used to add to a distressed scenario where something is not right and the world seems unbalanced. It can also be used if the subject is feeling sick or woozy.

Point-of-View Shot
A POV shot is used to show what the subject is seeing. This is especially useful in tense scenes where the character is scared or being chased.

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Shot Composition

2008-05-14T14:30:00.003-04:00

The easiest way to tell a professional cameraman from an amateur is by the composition of their shots. If their subject's face is right in the middle of the frame, odds are the cameraman is inexperienced and unsure of what proper composition is and why it's important. If you pay attention to any movie or TV show you'll notice that there are a number of different shots used and that many of them are used at similar times regardless of the show (based on the emotion of the character and what's going on in the story). Here's a list of the most popular shots and when they're commonly used.

Main Shots

Wide Shot
A wide shot is defined as any shot that contains an entire human body from head to toe. This can also be called a long shot. A shot where the subject is extremely far away from the camera is called an extreme wide shot (or extreme long shot). These shots are usually used to establish the setting of a scene. Since the subject is so far from the camera, it can be difficult for the viewer to really focus on them and separate them from the background, so the wide shot is seldom used during any dialog. Use a wide shot when the setting or action (and not the subject) is the main focus.

Medium Shot
The medium shot spans from the subject's waist to just above their head. This is considered a neutral shot and represents how most people interact with each other on a daily basis (it's rare to have a regular conversation with someone where you can see much below their waist in your peripheral vision because you'd be right up in their face). A subject in a medium shot is neither diminished nor overly emphasized.

Close-Up
Essentially a head shot (or face shot) that's used to amplify details. The frame consists of the subject from their neck to the top of their head. The close-up helps the viewer identify what the character is thinking or how they're feeling. The viewer is forced to look at the subject since there is nothing else in the frame. An extreme close-up can be used to increase the effect even more (although it's not usually used for long durations). The framing for an extreme close-up is from the subject's eye brows to the middle of their nose.

Combination Shots

Medium Wide
A combination of a medium shot and a wide shot. The frame is from the subject's knees to their head.

Medium Close-Up
A combination of a medium shot and a close-up. The frame is from the subject's chest to their head.

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Film Formats

2008-05-12T17:30:00.003-04:00

If you're fortunate enough to have the budget to be shooting on film rather than video you're going to want to know your choices. Let's forget for a moment that the format you choose will most likely be decided by your budget and examine all the major formats and their pros and cons.

35mm
The format you're probably most familiar with and have seen the most (with or without knowing it). The majority of shows and commercials on TV are shot on 35mm due to its resolution and color saturation. From there they're transferred to video for easier editing and broadcast delivery.

35mm film's aspect ratio is 1.33:1 which means the image is 1.33 times wider than it is high. This is also the same aspect ratio of regular non-widescreen televisions. This is referred to as Academy Aperture because the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences accepted the format soon after sound was introduced in movies. There is an area to the side of the frame that was used to optically record sound before today's sound recording methods were invented. You can gain access to the unused area of film by adjusting the camera's gate. This will make the frame wider, but usually not to the standard of 1.85:1. This is done by masking the projector lens to block the upper and lower portions of the frame.

Shooting on 35mm is typically reserved for movies with higher budgets. This isn't just because the cost of film is higher but because the cost of the cameras is higher as well. Unfortunately this stops 35mm from being an option for most students and smaller independent filmmakers. This issue is magnified by the fact that it's difficult to get your movie shown unless it's on 35mm since very few theaters are equipped with 16mm and 8mm projector.

16mm
16mm is the choice of most independent filmmakers and students because the cost of the stock, processing, and cameras is much less than that of 35mm (but that's not to say it's cheap). 16mm has the same aspect ratio as 35mm (1.33:1) but has a grainier picture because it's half the size.

Super 16mm
Super 16 is a popular alternative to regular 16mm because of its wider aspect ratio. By using regular 16mm film stock and a modified camera you can use the extra area on the film (like on 35mm) to get a wider aspect ratio. The majority of newer 16mm cameras can easily be switched between 16mm and Super 16mm but older cameras require significant adjustments to the gate.

Super 8mm
Super 8mm is the easiest to load of the major film stocks because it comes in a cartridge. While this saves time when reloading, the majority of Super 8 cartridges only come with 50' of film (as opposed to rolls of 16mm that can come with up to 400' of film) so you'll be reloading more often. Regular 8mm is loaded like standard spool-based film but is getting increasingly hard to find since it has no real advantage over Super 8mm in terms of image quality or ease of use.

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Interviewing Essentials

2008-05-12T01:11:00.010-04:00

If you're shooting a documentary there's an excellent chance that you'll be doing some interviews. But there's much more to conducting an interview than just having a conversation. You need to be well prepared in advance and know exactly what feeling you want the audience to experience when they watch the interview. Not only that, you want the interview to go smoothly and be engaging and interesting. Here are some tips on how to get the most out of your interview subjects.

A) The Interviewer as the Director

The interviewer subtly directs and guides the interview subject to show certain feelings and emotions. This is especially important if the subject is being overly emotional and having a hard time getting through the interview. A supportive interviewer who encourages the subject to continue instead of pausing to recompose them self can produce a truly powerful interview.
The interviewer actively participates in the discussion rather than just being a passive observer.

B) The Interviewer as an Active Listener

The interviewer acts like a normal, focused person would in any conversation.
Maintain eye contact at all times.
Give visual feedback only (nodding, smiling, and other facial expressions).
Focus on the existing question until you're either satisfied with the answer or until it's clear the subject isn't going to discuss it any further.

C) Planning the Interview

Have a list of people you want to interview.
Have a list of all topics you want to cover with those people.
Have cue cards with the questions written on them.

D) Conducting the Interview

Chat with the subject before the interview begins to help them relax and build trust in you. You want them to be comfortable when the interview begins.
Start off with factual, straight-forward questions and slowly transition towards the more emotional ones later in the interview.
Stick to one topic at a time.
Don't sound like you're interrogating the subject. Speak to them in a normal manner.
Try to avoid yes or no questions (unless you want to receive a yes or no answer). Go with more open questions that will allow the subject to go into more detail with their response.
Try to encourage subjects to answer more honestly and emotionally by asking questions that elicit anecdotal responses.
Don't settle for general answers. Be sure that they're worth putting into the final cut of the movie.
Every so often you should summarize the past few comments of the subject to show that you're interested in / listening to what they're saying. It will also give them a chance to correct you if you aren't understanding them.
Don't be afraid to get the subject back on track if they try to steer the conversation in another direction.
Don't feel obligated to constantly respond to the subject unless it's clear they're expecting a response from you. Silence can allow the subject to go deeper into their answers.
End the interview by giving the subject the final word. Allow them to get in any parting comments that may not have been covered earlier in the conversation.

E) Interviewer and Camera Placement

Placing the camera immediately above the interviewer's head will make it appear as if the subject is speaking directly to the audience (this won't work if the interviewer has a high hair-style). This puts the audience in a direct relationship with the subject.
Placing the camera beside the interviewer's head will will make it appear as if the subject is speaking to someone off screen. This will make the audience feel like they're witnessing the subject.
Having the interviewer and subject on screen together and cutting between the two (similar to news and talk shows) allows the audience to see how the interviewer is affected by the subject's comments.

I know this seems like a lot, but it's all important to remember if you want to get the best interview possible. Like all things interviewing takes practice. Try interviewing a friend or crew member in advance to prepare for the actual interview.

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Necessary Elements for a Film Outline

2008-05-11T21:21:00.003-04:00

When you set out to write a script it's best to give it some serious thought before committing too many words to paper. You need to know your story and characters inside out before you can start writing about either. Here are a list of things you should be able to easily identify before starting the actual script.

1. What is the protagonist's goal or need?
2. Describe the main characters - Everything from physical appearance and personality to their background and any hobbies they might have.
3. Describe the setting, time, location, and period.
4. What's the conflict? Why did it happen? Who caused it?
5. Briefly explain the main plot points.
6. What's the climax of the story and how does the protagonist get through it?
7. Resolution - How does the story end / what happens to the protagonist at the end?
8. What genre will the movie be?

You should have no trouble answering these questions before you begin your script. The entire outline should be 1-2 double spaced pages.

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Video Camera Terms

2008-05-08T22:46:00.004-04:00

There are a number of terms you should understand when working with video. They'll not only help you understand the equipment better, but also help you communicate with people who are more experienced than you. Here are some terms that relate to the typical video camera.

The Lens - While certainly not exclusive only to video cameras, the lens gathers light which passes through it on its way to the prism. Lenses are built with extreme precision to ensure they can keep objects in sharp focus.

The Iris - The iris on a camera is very similar to the iris in a human eye (except the one in your eye doesn't have a manual mode). It controls exposure by regulating the amount of light that enters the camera by opening and closing the aperture.

The Prism - Located behind the lens, the prism filters out the three primary colors of light (red, green, and blue) for separate processing by the CCD.

CCD (Charged-Coupled Device) - The CCD converts light into electrical energy. Professional cameras will have three CCD's (a separate one for red, green, and blue) while consumer cameras will usually just have one that handles all three colors. Each CCD is made of hundreds of thousands to millions (depending on the size of the CCD) of photo sensors called pixels.

Pixels - Individual photo sensors in the CCD that hold light and transfer it into energy. The pixel gets an electrical charge when light hits it (the strength of the charge depends on the intensity of the light) which results in an overall image when all the pixels are combined.

Luminance - The brightness and tonal range of a video signal. It's often referred to as "Y".

Chrominance - The color information of a video signal. It's also called "Chroma" or "C". Chrominance is made up of two elements: Hue (the tint) and Saturation (the degree of color). The hue determines how much blue, green, and red are visible in an image while the saturation controls how intense the color is and how much it's diluted by white light.

Gain - Gain does the same thing in cameras as it does in all other electronics (amplifiers, mixers, etc.); It controls the level of signal amplification.

Contrast - The range of brightness from highlight to shadow in an image. Contrast allows us to see the tonal quality of a picture.

The Encoder - The circuit board in the camera that takes all the information from the previous definitions and turns it into a viewable video signal.

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Crew Definitions - Camera and Lighting Department

2008-05-08T14:39:00.004-04:00

This is the fifth post in my series on Crew Definitions. Check out the posts on the Producing Department, Directing Department, Art Department, and Production Sound Department if you haven't already done so.

Camera and Lighting Department

Director of Photography or Cinematographer (Key) - In charge of the camera and lighting crew and in charge of decisions made about the image. The DOP selects the shooting format (type of film stock or video) and the lights, filters, and lenses that will be used for each scene. How much independence the DOP has usually depends on their relationship with the Director. If the two have worked together before and there is a high level of trust between them the Director will convey what they want the scene to look like and allow the DOP to do whatever they think is best. However in other situations the Director might instruct the DOP on everything right down to shutter speed and aperture.

Camera Operator - Aside from (obviously) operating the camera, he/she is responsible for maintaining the proper framing and camera movements. The Camera Operator works with the DOP and Director to decide on camera setups, lenses, and filters.

First Assistant Camera/Focus Puller - Ensuring that the shot stays in focus is the First AC's main job. Since it can be hard to accurately judge a shot's focus by eye, the First AC will often measure the distance from the camera that the main action is taking place in. They'll then use a follow focus device that attaches to the camera and allows them to mark different distances on it to make the job easier. The First AC also handles the task of changing lenses and filters on the camera.

Second Assistant Camera/Clapper/Loader - The Second AC claps the slate at the beginning of each shot and loads/unloads the film from the camera. They also assist the First AC with finding and getting the lenses and filters when needed.

Gaffer - The Gaffer is the top electrician on set and in charge of carrying out the DOP's lighting plan.

Best Boy - The Best Boy is the Gaffer's assistant and is responsible for setting up the lights.

Key Grip - Head of the Grips. They create lighting effects, move and operate other equipment on set (cranes and dollies), and move props.

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Crew Definitions - Production Sound Department

2008-05-08T01:23:00.006-04:00

This is post #4 in my series on Crew Definitions. Check out the posts on the Producing Department, Directing Department, and Art Department if you haven't already done so.

Production Sound

Sound Recordist / Mixer (Key) - It is the sound recordist's job to ensure that the best quality sound is recorded on set. Their duties include selecting the sound gear, directing the Boom Operator, adjusting recording levels, and combining numerous microphones to capture various voices, sounds, and ambience's. The Sound Recordist is also responsible for recording wild lines and room tone and must keep a detailed log of which takes were best for sound.

Boom Operator - The Boom Operator's job is to place the microphone in the best possible position for sound while not interfering with the shot. A Boom Operator not only needs to have strong arms (the job gets extremely tiring after a while) but also a good eye to ensure the boom pole isn't casting any unwanted shadows in the shot. It's also typically the Boom Operator's job to put wireless microphones on guests when needed. Boom Operator's are usually advised to wear soft-soled shoes to avoid picking up the sound of their own footsteps in a shot where they need to follow the action.

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Crew Definitions - Art Department

2008-05-07T22:05:00.003-04:00

This is the third post in my series on Crew Definitions. Click these links to read the articles on the Producing Department and the Directing Department.

Art Department

Art Director and/or Production Designer (Key) - The Art Director designs the sets and oversees the people who build them. They choose the furniture, decorations, room layouts, and even the color of paint on the walls. While the Director needs to approve all ideas/designs, the art director comes up with the initial concepts.

Makeup Artist - Fairly self-explanatory; The Makeup Artist does all the makeup for the actors and answers to the Art Director.

Wardrobe - Also responsible to the Art Director, Wardrobe takes care of all actors' on-screen clothing. Their duties include designing the outfits, purchasing or making them, and arranging for their storage and upkeep during the shoot.

Prop Master - Finds and takes care of all set dressings that the Art Director requests. The Prop Master is in charge of either purchasing or renting the props and storing and maintaining them throughout the shoot.

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Crew Definitions - Directing Department

2008-05-07T16:37:00.005-04:00

This is the second post my series on Crew Definitions. If you haven't read the first post on the Producing Department, click here.

Directing Department

Director (Key) - The director has full control over all creative aspects of the movie (assuming they're feasible within the producer's budget). He/she begins working very early on (often before the majority of the crew is on board) due to the amount of preproduction work there is to do. Some of these duties include making adjustments to the script/story, casting, choosing locations, attending rehearsals, doing storyboards, and helping design sets and props. When the movie is ready to be shot, the director works extremely close with the Director of Photography to decide how the lighting will look, what the framing of the shots will be, and how the camera will move (the reason the DOP exists is so that the director doesn't need to do all of this on his/her own).

Working with the actors is the directors most important job. There are other crew members to help the director with every other aspect of his/her job except for this one. It's the director's responsibility to ensure that the actors are giving their best possible performances and that they understand exactly what it is that the director wants from them. He/she must also make sure that the entire movie fits together properly at the end since the scenes are almost always shot out of sequence. If anything is missing by the end of the shoot because the director overlooked it, additional shoot days may need to be scheduled (often a very expensive thing to do).

First Assistant Director (Key) - The First AD is the person on set who makes sure everything gets done as well as it can get done and as fast as it can get done. It's their job to make sure that actors and crew members are at the right place at the right time and doing their jobs. The First AD will always have a shot list and shooting schedule on hand so they know how much time each shot has taken and how long it will take to finish shooting for each day. Without this being done, the days could go over their allotted time, thus costing the production more money in equipment rental fees and overtime costs for the actors and crew.

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Crew Definitions - Producing Department

2008-05-04T23:04:00.004-04:00

If you've ever watched the credits at the end of a movie before, you know just how many people it takes to make one. Most people don't know what anyone past the director and actors do though. Over the next few posts I'm going to explain the duties and responsibilities of each crew member.

Producing Department

Executive Producer - The executive producer finds the funding for the production and also has distribution connections (or is the distributor).

Producer (Key) - The producer is at the top of the totem poll of crew members. He/she is in charge of all the non-creative aspects of the production (which are the director's job). The producer is responsible for bringing the script, crew, actors, and finances together in the preliminary stages of the production. The producer's job is successfully completed when the movie is finished on time without going over budget.

Production Manager - The producer's right hand man (or woman) who helps draft and supervise the budget and hire the crew. He/she is also responsible for ensuring that all deal memos, location agreements, and release forms have been signed and filed. The production manager also oversees the day to day operation of the film and is on set taking notes about each shooting day. These notes are then used to write the Daily Production Report (DPR) which details any issues or problems experienced on set.

Unit Production Manager - If the Production Manager is too busy working in the office to be on set there will often be a Unit Production Manger to take his/her place. The UPM will also assist the PM with financial duties by ensuring that all shooting-day purchases are the best possible value and ensuring that nothing is putting the production over budget.

Assistant/Associate Producer - This crew member isn't always necessary but usually is on larger productions when the Producer needs help. The Producer will delegate whatever jobs he/she sees fit/needs help with to the Assistant/Associate Producer as there are no set duties that apply to all of them.

Line Producer - The Line Producer works with many key members of the production including the Director, First Assistant Director, Unit Production Manager, Art Director, Editor, and Composer to help come up with the budget and production schedule. Every budget and schedule that is made needs to be approved by the Line Producer as they are extremely familiar with all below-the-line costs and are the most cost-efficient people on the crew.

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Improvisational Rehearsal Techniques

2008-05-04T00:44:00.004-04:00

Here are a few techniques for when you're improvising during rehearsal.

1. Analogous Improvisation: The situation and characters are different but what they want is the same or similar.

2. Back Story Improvisation: The same characters in a significant scene that does not appear in the screenplay.

3. Moment Before Improvisation: Acting out what just happened before the characters entered the scene.

Trying these methods will ensure that rehearsal stays fun and interesting for both the actors and director. It's also possible that new ideas can be stumbled upon through improvisation as well, so don't cast it off as being a waste of time.

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Sample Rehearsal Process

2008-05-03T20:04:00.005-04:00

Before shooting begins you're going to want to have a few rehearsal sessions. Most people think that rehearsing is just running through the scenes the same way you would when ready to shoot but there's actually much more to it than that.

Here are some steps you should go through during your rehearsals.

1. Read through the entire script: This is the first thing you should do before actual rehearsals begin and is commonly referred to as a 'table read' where all the main actors will sit down with the director (and other key crew members if needed) and read through the entire script so any questions the actors have can be answered.

2. Brief discussion of the setting and the character's back story: Go over the character and setting descriptions and add a human element to them; Make the characters and their lives real instead of fictional.

3. Read through each scene: This is done before the actual rehearsal. It's basically a dry run without any direction so the director can see how the actors would naturally handle the scene.

4. Discussion of objectives: What is the character trying to do or accomplish in the scene?

5. Read through again with actions/objectives and beats in mind: Go through the script again to smooth out the pacing and to fine tune the delivery of the actors' lines.

6. If it's working, start acting it out: If you're happy with the read go to the set (or where ever is convenient) and begin acting out the scene.

7. If not, do another read: If you're not happy with how the read is going, try it again while really focusing on the performances and making sure you're being clear when telling the actors what you want done differently.

8. Coordinate blocking and actions: Get on set and decide how and where the actors are going to be moving.

9. Improvise if necessary: If either you or the actors are unhappy with the blocking, allow them to improvise the scene to see if they can come up with something you hadn't thought of.

10. Refine blocking and actions: Take what you learned from the improv session and apply it to the rehearsal.

Not only will these steps ensure better performances from your actors, they'll also make the actual shoot go smoother and faster (which will save the production time and money).

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F-Stops

2008-05-03T01:52:00.008-04:00

F-Stops are used to set the exposure on a camera (to control the amount of light that enters the camera through the aperture). On higher-end cameras there will be a ring located near the focus and zoom rings on the camera but if you're using a more consumer-level camera it may be located somewhere else on the body or hidden away in a menu.

Perhaps you've seen the numbers with the f's in front of them and wondered what they mean. If so, it's a good thing you're reading this!

The standard F-Stop scale is: 1, 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, 32

While it may look hard to remember, it's really not. As long as you can remember the first two numbers, you'll be fine because the odd numbers double each time as do the even numbers (I bolded the even numbers in the scale to illustrate this better). The scale works on this doubling method because you increase or decrease the amount of light by half each time you move up or down a stop on the scale. A lot of people wonder about the progression of numbers and why it isn't more straight forward (ie. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.) but it's best not to worry about it and just memorize the scale. The reasoning behind the numbers is based on math formulas that were worked out years ago but if you really want to learn about their history I'm sure Wikipedia will help you.

Some people refer to F-Stops as T-Stops but they're basically the same thing and the term is interchangeable. T-Stops are often called "true F-Stops" (although the T stands for transmission, not true) because they take the light that's lost due to the lens into account. However, standard F-Stops will suffice in most situations.

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Color Temperature

2008-04-30T12:45:00.003-04:00

An important thing to remember when lighting a scene is the color temperature of the light being used. Remember, white light isn't really white - our minds just perceive it to be. White light is actually made up of all wavelengths of light (the Newtonian spectrum). White light can have just about any tint to it and is referred to as being warm or cool depending on if the tint is more red or more blue. Of course this doesn't imply that the light is actually blue or red, just that there's a slight hint of it mixed in with the white. Why is this important to keep in mind? Because film and video cameras don't see light the way people do - They see it much more accurately. So an image that may look perfect to your eye on set can look entirely different once you review the footage after it's been shot.

Color correcting this in post is a very expensive process (I spent $650 for a one hour session a few weeks ago), so unless money is just an afterthought on your production, you're going to want to do your best to match the color temperature of the light to the color temperature balance of your emulsion or video system. There are two standard measures for color temperature: 3200 degrees Kelvin (K) for indoor balance and 5600 degrees Kelvin (K) (a mixture of sun and skylight) for outdoor balance. Professional film and video lights are made to have these same color balances but standard lights you'd find around your house can have all sorts of different balances (hence why it's better to go with the pro lights).

If you've ever purchased any film stock, you've probably noticed that it either says 3200K or 5600K on the box. That's how those particular stocks (or emulsions) are balanced and the lights you use with that film should match it. If for whatever reason you can't match the lights to the film stock you're using, you can always put a filter over the light.

When using indoor film stock outside in daylight, put an orange filter over the lens. The warmer color of the orange will counteract the cooler daylight. Kodak calls this filter a Wratten 85. On the other hand, you could use a daylight film stock indoors with a blue filter (Wratten 80 B) to counteract the warmer indoor lighting. However, it's always recommended that you match the proper light to the proper emulsion because adding filters will decrease the exposure since the light now needs to pass through both the filter and the lens.

Color temperature rules apply to video cameras as well but are a bit easier to deal with since you can see the image right away instead of waiting for film to be processed. You tell the camera what white is under the current lighting conditions by holding something perfectly white in the shot (piece of paper, foam core, etc.), zooming in on it completely, and pressing the white balance button on the camera. This calibrates the camera properly so that the colors are reproduced accurately. It's very important to remember to re-white balance the camera whenever the lighting is changed or adjusted to maintain the proper color on screen.

Of course there are times when you may not want perfect color. Perhaps you're going for a different look and want to introduce different tints of color to your shots. You can easily accomplish this by white balancing on something that isn't white. For example, white balance with a light yellow object and you'll get a bluish tint. If you use something blue the image will get warmer. It can be fun and interesting to mess around with this to see what cool looks you can come up with even if they aren't always practical.

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